(Complete Study Notes for UGC NET Political Science)

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I. Nature and Scope of Comparative Politics

What is Comparative Politics?

• It studies political systems, institutions, and processes across countries.

• Focus: How and why political systems differ or resemble one another.

• Purpose: To develop general theories of political behavior and institutions.

Evolution:

1. Traditional Comparative Politics – Focused on formal institutions (constitutions, legislatures, executives).

2. Behavioral Revolution (1950s–60s) – Shift toward studying behavior, culture, and attitudes.

3. Post-Behavioralism (1970s–) – Brought back issues of justice, values, and policy relevance.

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II. Approaches in Comparative Politics

1️⃣ Institutional Approach

• Oldest approach (classical).

• Studies formal structures — constitution, executive, judiciary, political systems.

• Example: Comparing U.S. Presidential vs U.K. Parliamentary systems.

Criticism: Too legalistic and ignores actual political behavior.

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2️⃣ Political Culture Approach

• Developed by Almond and Verba (The Civic Culture, 1963).

• Focus on citizens’ orientations toward the political system.

• Types:

  • Parochial: Minimal awareness (e.g., tribal societies)

  • Subject: Citizens aware but passive

  • Participant: Citizens active in political life

• Democracies need a “civic culture” — a mix of participation and acceptance.

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3️⃣ Political Economy Approach

• Studies interaction between politics and economics.

• Key thinkers: Karl Marx, Lenin, Gramsci, Frank.

• Focus:

  • How economic systems shape power relations.

  • Inequality between developed (core) and developing (periphery) nations.

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4️⃣ New Institutionalism

• Revived focus on institutions (1970s–onwards).

• Types:

  • Rational choice institutionalism: Individuals act strategically within institutions.

  • Historical institutionalism: Institutions shaped by historical choices.

  • Sociological institutionalism: Institutions create norms and identities.

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5️⃣ Comparative Methods

• Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD): Cases are similar but differ in key variable.

• Most Different Systems Design (MDSD): Cases are different but produce similar outcomes.

• Case Studies: In-depth study of one or few countries.

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III. Colonialism and Decolonization

1️⃣ Forms of Colonialism

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2️⃣ Anti-Colonial Struggles

• Movements aiming for self-determination and national liberation.

• Examples:

  • India: Non-violent movement (Gandhi)

  • Algeria: Violent struggle (FLN)

  • Africa: Pan-Africanism (Kwame Nkrumah)

• Influenced by Marxism, nationalism, and liberalism.

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3️⃣ Decolonization

• Political independence of colonies post–World War II.

• Challenges faced:

  • Nation-building

  • Economic dependency

  • Ethnic divisions

  • Neo-colonialism

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IV. Nationalism

1️⃣ European Nationalism

• Emerged with French Revolution.

• Based on shared language, culture, history.

• Philosophers: Herder, Rousseau, Mazzini, Renan.

2️⃣ Non-European Nationalism

• Reaction against colonial domination.

• Aimed at freedom, unity, and modernization.

• Examples:

  • India: Inclusive and spiritual (Tagore, Gandhi)

  • China: Anti-imperialist and socialist

  • Africa: Pan-Africanism (Nkrumah), Negritude (Senghor)

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V. State Theory

1️⃣ Capitalist State

• Marxist View: State as an instrument of the ruling capitalist class.

• Poulantzas vs Miliband Debate:

  • Miliband: State serves ruling class directly (instrumentalist).

  • Poulantzas: State maintains capitalism structurally (structuralist).

2️⃣ Socialist State

• Ownership of production by the state.

• Goal: Social equality and classless society.

• Example: USSR, Maoist China.

3️⃣ Post-Colonial State

• Newly independent, faced issues like dependency, corruption, and authoritarianism.

• Thinkers: Frantz Fanon, Ake, Alavi.

4️⃣ Welfare State

• Ensures basic welfare, healthcare, education, and social justice.

• Example: Scandinavian countries, India (Directive Principles).

5️⃣ Globalization and the Nation-State

• Globalization reduces sovereignty.

• Rise of transnational corporations (TNCs), global governance (UN, WTO).

• Nation-state adapts by sharing power (multilevel governance).

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VI. Political Regimes

A. Democratic Regimes

B. Non-Democratic Regimes

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VII. Constitutions and Constitutionalism

Key Concepts

• Constitution: Fundamental rules defining power distribution.

• Constitutionalism: Limitation of power through the rule of law.

• Judicial Independence: Judiciary must be free from political influence.

• Liberal Constitutionalism: Rights, freedoms, and separation of powers.

• Emergency Powers: Suspension of normal constitutional rights during crises.

• Crisis of Constitutionalism: When rulers misuse emergency powers (e.g., India 1975–77).

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VIII. Democratization

1️⃣ Democratic Transition

• Change from authoritarian to democratic rule.

• Theories:

  • Modernization Theory (Lipset): Economic development leads to democracy.

  • Elite Pact Model: Transition negotiated by elites.

  • Mass Mobilization Model: Popular uprisings (Arab Spring).

2️⃣ Democratic Consolidation

• Deepening and institutionalizing democracy.

• Requires:

  • Rule of law

  • Stable party system

  • Civil society

  • Political tolerance

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IX. Development Theories

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X. Structures of Power

• Ruling Class (Marx): Economic class controls the state.

• Power Elite (C. Wright Mills): Military, corporate, and political elites dominate.

• Democratic Elitism (Schumpeter): Democracy = competition among elites for votes.

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XI. Actors and Processes

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XII. Key Thinkers to Remember