Vijayanagara Empire
A structured study module covering the rise, dynasties, important rulers, administration, economy, trade, society, religion, architecture, literature, foreign travellers and decline of the Vijayanagara Empire.
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1. Historical Background and Rise
The emergence of Vijayanagara needs to be understood against the political instability of fourteenth-century India. The weakening of the Delhi Sultanate created conditions in which regional political powers could assert greater independence.
The decline and weakening of the Delhi Sultanate was followed by the emergence of important regional powers in South India, particularly Vijayanagara and the Bahmani Sultanate.
The Deccan and South India
The notes identify two major political formations that emerged in this environment: the Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate.
2. Foundation of Vijayanagara
The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
Harihara I and Bukka Raya I
The notes identify Harihara I and Bukka Raya I as former feudatories of the Kakatiyas and ministers in the Kampili kingdom.
Early Expansion
The empire expanded southwards, with the notes mentioning extension towards Rameshwaram and incorporation of parts of the Chera kingdom.
3. Four Dynasties of Vijayanagara
The Vijayanagara Empire was ruled successively by four major dynasties.
| Dynasty | Period | UPSC Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Sangama | 1336–1486 | Foundational dynasty and period of early expansion. |
| Saluva | 1486–1505 | Political transition between the Sangama and Tuluva phases. |
| Tuluva | 1505–1570 | Associated especially with the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. |
| Aravidu | 1570–1646 | Later phase of Vijayanagara after the crisis of the sixteenth century. |
Sangama → Saluva → Tuluva → Aravidu
4. Important Early Rulers
Harihara I was one of the founders of the empire. The notes associate his reign with the establishment of Vijayanagara and the annexation of Hoysala territories after their decline.
Bukka Raya I is described as an expansionist ruler. His campaigns extended Vijayanagara’s influence to Madurai, Arcot and Kondavidu.
Kumara Kampana played an important role in the defeat of the Sultan of Madurai. His campaigns are associated with the expansion of Vijayanagara’s influence in the south.
Known in the notes by the title Gajabetekara, or “Elephant Hunter”. He defeated the Bahmani Sultans and the Reddi Kingdom of Kondavidu and strengthened irrigation and agriculture.
5. Krishna Deva Raya – The Golden Age
Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1530 CE) is presented in the notes as the greatest ruler of the Tuluva Dynasty and the ruler associated with the Golden Age of Vijayanagara.
Political and Economic Contributions
- Secured Vijayanagara’s dominance over South India.
- Established friendly relations with the Portuguese.
- Portuguese were allowed to settle at Bhatkal and establish trade centres.
- The notes associate his reign with strengthening the navy for maritime trade.
6. Literature and Cultural Patronage
Krishna Deva Raya’s reign was associated with significant literary and artistic patronage.
Languages
Ashtadiggajas
The court of Krishna Deva Raya was associated with the Ashtadiggajas, the eight great poets. The notes specifically mention Allasani Peddana, author of Manucharitam.
7. Administration and Polity
Monarchical System
The notes describe Vijayanagara as a monarchical system in which the king held supreme authority and was assisted by a Council of Ministers.
Administrative Divisions
Provinces → Districts → Sub-districts → Villages
Nayankara System
The Nayaks functioned as governors with considerable autonomy. They maintained armies and paid tribute to the central authority.
Amaram System
Military chiefs or Palaiyagars/Nayaks were granted land in return for providing soldiers.
Revenue
- Land tax is given in the notes as approximately 1/3rd to 1/6th of produce.
- Taxes were also imposed on trade.
- Grazing and imports/exports were additional sources of revenue.
- Revenue supported public welfare and military expenses.
8. Economy and Agriculture
The Vijayanagara economy was supported by agriculture, textiles, mining, metallurgy and extensive trade.
Irrigation
The notes repeatedly connect Vijayanagara’s prosperity with agricultural development and irrigation. Deva Raya II is specifically associated with strengthening irrigation systems and improving agriculture.
9. Trade and Maritime Connections
Vijayanagara participated in long-distance commercial networks extending across the Indian Ocean and beyond.
Major Trade Partners
Exports
Rice, iron, sandalwood, sugar and spices.
Imports
Horses, ivory and silk.
Portuguese Connection
The notes describe friendly relations between Krishna Deva Raya and the Portuguese, including Portuguese settlement at Bhatkal and the establishment of trade centres.
10. Society and Social Structure
Three Broad Social Groups
Women’s Status
The notes mention women’s participation in politics and literature and identify skills and activities including wrestling, astrology, accounting and soothsaying.
The Portuguese traveller Nuniz is specifically associated with observations concerning women.
11. Religion and Religious Interaction
Shaivism and Vaishnavism
The rulers patronised both Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
Srivaishnavism
The notes identify Srivaishnavism, associated with Ramanuja’s philosophy, as widely followed.
Muslim Communities
The notes state that Muslims held administrative positions and enjoyed religious freedom.
12. Architecture of Vijayanagara
Vijayanagara architecture combined elements described in the notes as Dravidian and Indo-Islamic styles.
Vijayanagara’s Urban-Military Architecture
The fortifications illustrate that the imperial capital was not merely a religious centre. Defence, royal ceremonies, urban life and political authority were also expressed through the built environment.
13. Important Monuments and Artistic Traditions
| Monument / Tradition | Key Feature |
|---|---|
| Vittalaswami Temple | Musical pillars and iconic stone chariot. |
| Hazara Ramaswamy Temple | Ramayana-themed bas-reliefs; associated with Vijayanagara rulers. |
| Virupaksha Temple | One of the oldest functioning Shiva temples. |
| Mahanavami Dibba | Elevated platform used for royal ceremonies, military parades and Navaratri celebrations. |
| Lepakshi Murals | Vibrant frescoes depicting Hindu deities and mythological themes. |
| Yali Motif | Mythical lion-like creature used as a characteristic sculptural motif. |
| Vijayanagara Fortifications | Seven concentric walls, watchtowers and bastions. |
14. Foreign Travellers and Their Observations
Foreign travellers are particularly important for reconstructing Vijayanagara’s urban life, wealth, trade, administration, military strength and social conditions.
| Traveller | Country | Associated Ruler | Observation in the Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ibn Battuta | Morocco | Harihara I | Described the capital as a well-fortified and wealthy city and noted trade activities. |
| Niccolò de’ Conti | Italy | Deva Raya I | Described Vijayanagara’s wealth, extensive trade and grand architecture. |
| Abdul Razzaq | Persia | Deva Raya II | Noted prosperity, strong fortifications, thriving markets and Hindu-Muslim interaction. |
| Duarte Barbosa | Portugal | Krishna Deva Raya | Described administration, trade policies and naval strength. |
| Domingo Paes | Portugal | Krishna Deva Raya | Admired military strength, economic prosperity and court culture; described Mahanavami celebrations, irrigation and trade. |
| Fernao Nuniz | Portugal | Achyuta Deva Raya | Wrote about decline, taxation and women’s status, including trade, wrestling and astrology. |
Travellers are not merely names to memorise. Associate each with the kind of evidence they provide: city → trade → markets → administration → military → irrigation → society.
15. Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire
Major Internal Causes
- Continuous wars weakened the empire.
- Provincial Nayaks gained increasing power.
- Nayaks eventually declared independence.
- Succession conflicts created political instability.
- Later rulers were unable to manage the vast empire effectively.
Battle of Talikota – 1565 CE
The notes describe the battle as a decisive defeat against the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates, followed by the sacking of Hampi.
After Hampi
Following the destruction of Hampi, the capital shifted to Penukonda.
Final Collapse
The Aravidu Dynasty continued in the later phase, but the empire ultimately disintegrated in 1646 CE.
16. UPSC Analytical Revision
17. One-Page Revision Sheet
Sangama → Saluva → Tuluva → Aravidu
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