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1. Dissatisfaction with constitutional methods

Some young nationalists believed petitions and limited constitutional agitation would not end colonial rule quickly enough. They favoured secret organisation and direct action.

2. The Swadeshi and Boycott atmosphere

The anti-partition agitation following the 1905 Partition of Bengal encouraged political mobilisation. In some circles, militant nationalism developed alongside boycott, national education and public protest.

3. Colonial repression

Restrictions, arrests and prosecutions pushed some activists towards clandestine networks. Repression also disrupted organisations and limited their ability to build broad public support.

4. International influences

Some revolutionaries drew inspiration from European nationalist movements, revolutionary literature and anti-colonial struggles elsewhere. Later activists were also influenced by socialism and the Russian Revolution.

5. The First World War

The war created an opportunity that revolutionaries hoped to exploit through overseas arms, returning expatriates, international contacts and attempts to encourage mutiny in the colonial army.

Bengal: Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar

Secret revolutionary networks grew in Bengal in the early twentieth century. The Muzaffarpur bombing attempt in 1908, involving Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki, was followed by investigations and the Alipore Conspiracy Case. Jugantar was associated with revolutionary activity and publications.

Maharashtra: Abhinav Bharat

V.D. Savarkar was associated with the development of Abhinav Bharat from the earlier Mitra Mela circle. Revolutionary activity in the region included the Nashik conspiracy, associated with the assassination of A.M.T. Jackson in 1909.

Delhi: Hardinge bombing

A bomb was thrown at the Viceroy Lord Hardinge’s ceremonial procession in Delhi in December 1912. Rashbehari Bose and Sachindranath Sanyal are associated with the conspiracy.

Punjab: Ajit Singh and agrarian unrest

Ajit Singh and other activists mobilised against colonial agrarian policies in Punjab. The 1907 unrest, including the Pagri Sambhal Jatta movement, formed part of the wider atmosphere of anti-colonial radicalisation.

Later networks: HRA and HSRA

The HRA was founded in 1924. Its reorganisation as HSRA in 1928 marked a more explicit commitment to socialism. Important actions included Kakori in 1925, the Saunders case in 1928 and the Assembly bombing in 1929.

London: India House

Shyamji Krishna Varma established India House in London in 1905. It became an important centre for Indian students and anti-colonial political activity. Its journal, The Indian Sociologist, circulated nationalist arguments.

Associated figures: V.D. Savarkar and Madan Lal Dhingra, among others.

Madan Lal Dhingra — 1909

Dhingra assassinated Sir William Curzon Wyllie in London in July 1909 and was executed later that year. The case brought renewed attention to Indian revolutionary nationalism abroad.

Paris and European propaganda

Madam Bhikaji Cama and other expatriate nationalists used European centres to publish material, build contacts and promote Indian independence. Cama unfurled an early Indian nationalist flag at the International Socialist Congress at Stuttgart in 1907.

Berlin: Indian Independence Committee

During the First World War, Indian nationalists in Germany formed the Berlin Committee, also called the Indian Independence Committee. It sought international assistance and coordinated plans intended to undermine British rule in India.

North America: Ghadar

Indian migrants, especially Punjabi communities on the Pacific coast, organised the Ghadar movement. It aimed to encourage a revolt against British rule and published the newspaper Ghadar.

Origins and leadership

The Ghadar movement emerged among Indian expatriates in North America. The Ghadar Party was established in 1913, with San Francisco becoming its major centre. Important figures included Sohan Singh Bhakna, Lala Hardayal, Kartar Singh Sarabha and Barkatullah.

The newspaper Ghadar

The movement used the weekly newspaper Ghadar to circulate anti-colonial arguments and encourage Indians to return to India and participate in revolutionary action.

Komagata Maru — 1914

The denial of entry to passengers aboard the Komagata Maru in Canada, followed by the violent confrontation after the ship returned to India, intensified anger against racial discrimination and colonial rule.

The planned uprising of 1915

Ghadar activists returned to India hoping to organise a revolt, particularly within the army. The plan was linked to wider wartime revolutionary networks, including contacts with Rashbehari Bose and overseas supporters.

Why did it fail?

• British intelligence penetrated revolutionary networks.
• Arrests disrupted planning and communications.
• Coordination and preparations were inadequate.
• The movement could not generate the anticipated widespread military uprising.

What was the Indo-German conspiracy?

During the First World War, some Indian revolutionaries attempted to coordinate anti-British activity with German support. Their plans included arms supplies, international contacts and an uprising in British India.

Berlin Committee

The Indian Independence Committee in Berlin brought together expatriate revolutionaries. Figures associated with the wider overseas effort included Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, Bhupendranath Dutta and other Indian nationalists.

Rashbehari Bose

Rashbehari Bose was an important link in revolutionary activity inside India and wartime plans. He was associated with the Hardinge bombing conspiracy and later escaped to Japan.

Bagha Jatin and arms plans

Jatindranath Mukherjee, known as Bagha Jatin, was associated with attempts to secure arms from abroad. He died after an armed encounter with the police near Balasore in September 1915.

Kabul and the Provisional Government of India

In December 1915, an expatriate nationalist initiative proclaimed a Provisional Government of India in Kabul. Raja Mahendra Pratap was its president and Maulana Barkatullah its prime minister. The initiative sought external support for Indian independence.

Why did revolutionary activity revive?

After the First World War, some activists resumed their work. The withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922 disillusioned a section of younger nationalists who were unwilling to wait for gradual political change.

HRA — 1924

The Hindustan Republican Association sought to organise an armed revolution and establish a republic. Ram Prasad Bismil, Sachindranath Sanyal and Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee were associated with its formation.

HSRA — 1928

The HRA was reorganised as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. Bhagat Singh and his comrades increasingly emphasised socialism, collective leadership and the end of exploitation.

Chittagong group — 1930

Surya Sen’s group carried out the Chittagong Armoury Raid. The action showed that revolutionary organisation remained active in Bengal and included substantial participation by young women.

Changing ideas

Some revolutionaries moved beyond individual acts of heroic resistance and increasingly advocated political education, workers’ and peasants’ organisation, secularism and mass mobilisation.

Women in Bengal’s revolutionary movement

Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Datta, Bina Das, Shanti Ghosh and Suniti Choudhury were among the women associated with revolutionary activity. Their roles included direct action, organisation, communication and support networks.

Madam Bhikaji Cama

Cama promoted Indian independence from abroad through political advocacy, publications and international contacts. Her work shows that revolutionary nationalism included propaganda and diplomacy as well as armed action.

Indian diaspora

Indian communities in North America and Europe helped fund, publish and circulate anti-colonial ideas. Migrant workers and students created networks that crossed national boundaries.

Print culture

Newspapers and journals such as The Indian Sociologist and Ghadar spread political ideas, reported on repression and sought to mobilise readers.

What did revolutionary activities contribute?

• Kept uncompromising anti-colonial resistance visible.
• Inspired young people and generated powerful symbols of sacrifice.
• Connected Indian nationalism with international networks.
• Spread political arguments through newspapers, pamphlets and trials.
• Helped develop debates about socialism, secularism and social equality.

What limited their effectiveness?

Many initiatives depended on secrecy, small groups, uncertain supplies and coordination that could be disrupted by informers and police. Several planned uprisings failed to secure broad participation or sustained control.