Marathas
Medieval India • Regional Powers • UPSC History
The Marathas
Self-Learning Module for UPSC History
This module follows the transformation of Maratha power from the rise of Shivaji to the emergence of the Peshwas, the Maratha Confederacy, Panipat, the Anglo-Maratha Wars and the eventual end of Maratha political supremacy.
Do not study the Marathas merely as a list of rulers and battles. Understand the relationship between Swarajya, military organisation, administration, Peshwa expansion, confederacy politics and British expansion.
Rise of the Marathas
The Marathas emerged as a formidable political force in the seventeenth century in the Deccan, particularly in the region corresponding broadly to present-day Maharashtra.
Deccan Setting
The hill forts and rugged geography of the western Deccan shaped Maratha military organisation.
Shivaji
Shivaji became the central figure in the establishment of Maratha political power.
Swarajya
The idea of Hindavi Swarajya became closely associated with Shivaji’s political project.
Expansion
Maratha influence later expanded beyond Maharashtra into wider parts of India.
How can difficult terrain help a relatively smaller political power resist a much larger empire?
Shivaji Maharaj
Shivaji was the central figure in the rise of Maratha power and is associated with the establishment of Hindavi Swarajya.
⚔️ Military
Developed a highly mobile military system associated with guerrilla warfare or Ganimi Kava.
🏰 Forts
Fortified hill regions became important centres of defence and administration.
🚢 Navy
Maritime power became an important part of Maratha strategy.
👑 Coronation
Shivaji assumed the title Chhatrapati at Raigad in 1674.
Shivaji → Swarajya → Forts → Ganimi Kava → Administration → 1674 Coronation
1674 — Coronation at Raigad
The coronation of Shivaji at Raigad was an important symbolic and political moment in the consolidation of Maratha sovereignty.
Shivaji consolidated control over territories in the western Deccan.
Raigad became an important centre of Maratha political authority.
Shivaji was formally crowned and assumed the title Chhatrapati.
The coronation can be understood as the formal assertion of sovereign political authority rather than merely a ceremonial event.
Shivaji’s Administration
Shivaji developed an organised administrative structure to govern the territories under his authority.
Ashtapradhan
A council of eight ministers associated with the administration of the state.
Revenue
The revenue system was based on assessment and collection from agricultural production, with additional levies associated with Maratha expansion.
Forts
Forts served simultaneously as military, administrative and strategic centres.
Local Control
Effective administration required close supervision of territory and local officials.
Ashtapradhan is one of the most frequently associated administrative features of Shivaji’s rule.
Revenue: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
The expansion of Maratha political influence was closely associated with revenue claims such as Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
Chauth
A levy traditionally described as one-fourth of the assessed revenue of a territory.
Sardeshmukhi
A traditional additional claim associated with the Maratha political system, commonly described as ten percent.
How could revenue claims help the Marathas expand political influence without directly administering every territory?
Maratha Military Strategy
🏃 Mobility
Rapid movement allowed Maratha forces to avoid prolonged conventional engagements when advantageous.
🏔️ Terrain
The Western Ghats and hill country provided strategic advantages.
🏰 Fort Warfare
Forts provided defensive bases and enabled control over strategic routes.
🌊 Naval Power
Maritime forces became important in protecting and expanding influence along the western coast.
The term is associated with Maratha irregular and highly mobile methods of warfare, especially in difficult terrain.
Shivaji and the Mughals
The rise of Maratha power brought Shivaji into repeated conflict with the Mughal Empire and the Deccan Sultanates.
Shivaji defeated Afzal Khan of Bijapur.
The Treaty of Purandar followed Mughal pressure and resulted in the surrender of a number of forts.
Shivaji escaped from Mughal custody at Agra.
Maratha forces recovered important forts, including Sinhagad.
Understand Shivaji Through Events
Sambhaji, Rajaram and Tarabai
| Leader | Period | Historical Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Sambhaji | 1681–1689 | Continued resistance against Mughal expansion; captured and executed in 1689. |
| Rajaram | 1689–1700 | Moved to Gingee and continued resistance against the Mughals. |
| Tarabai | 1700–1714 | Acted as regent and led resistance during a critical period. |
The Maratha resistance did not collapse after Shivaji’s death. It continued under successive leadership and adapted to Mughal pressure.
Shahu and the Rise of the Peshwas
After Aurangzeb’s death, Shahu emerged as an important claimant to the Maratha leadership.
Shahu was released by Bahadur Shah I.
Shahu emerged victorious in the struggle against Tarabai.
Balaji Vishwanath was appointed Peshwa.
The Peshwas gradually became the de facto political leaders of the Maratha state.
The Peshwa Transformation
The eighteenth century saw a transformation in Maratha political organisation. The Chhatrapati remained the formal sovereign, but the Peshwa increasingly exercised effective political authority.
Earlier Structure
- Chhatrapati at the centre
- Strong personal authority
- Territorial consolidation
- Fort-centred state
Peshwa Period
- Peshwa became de facto leader
- Rapid territorial expansion
- Growing regional chiefs
- Eventually developed into a confederacy
The transition from Shivaji’s kingdom to Peshwa-led expansion changed the nature of Maratha political organisation.
Important Peshwas
| Peshwa | Period | Key Association |
|---|---|---|
| Balaji Vishwanath | 1713–1720 | Strengthened the position of the Peshwa and consolidated Shahu’s political position. |
| Baji Rao I | 1720–1740 | Rapid expansion of Maratha influence in northern India and highly mobile cavalry warfare. |
| Balaji Baji Rao | 1740–1761 | Peshwa supremacy increased; Marathas became a major power in northern India. |
| Madhav Rao I | 1761–1772 | Revived Maratha power after Panipat and reorganised administration. |
| Baji Rao II | 1796–1818 | Associated with the final phase of Peshwa power and the Anglo-Maratha Wars. |
Baji Rao I — Expansionist Phase
Baji Rao I was one of the most important Peshwas in the expansion of Maratha power during the eighteenth century.
🐎 Cavalry
He became famous for rapid cavalry movements and highly mobile warfare.
🗺️ North India
Maratha influence expanded substantially beyond the Deccan.
⚔️ Nizam
His forces defeated the Nizam at the Battle of Palkhed in 1728.
📈 Expansion
His period represents the transition from regional power to wider subcontinental influence.
The Maratha Confederacy
As Maratha influence expanded, several powerful regional families acquired considerable autonomy while recognising the broad supremacy of the Peshwa.
Scindias
Major centre: Gwalior.
Holkars
Major centre: Indore.
Gaekwads
Major centre: Baroda.
Bhonsles
Major centre: Nagpur.
The Confederacy was not the same thing as a tightly centralised empire. Regional chiefs exercised considerable autonomy.
Four Important Maratha Houses
| House | Centre | Important Personality | Association |
|---|---|---|---|
| Scindias | Gwalior | Mahadji Scindia | Revival of Maratha power after Panipat. |
| Holkars | Indore | Malhar Rao / Ahilyabai | Expansion in Malwa and important administrative rule. |
| Gaekwads | Baroda | Damaji Gaekwad | Maratha expansion in Gujarat. |
| Bhonsles | Nagpur | Raghoji Bhonsle | Expansion towards central and eastern India. |
Ahilyabai Holkar
Ahilyabai Holkar is remembered in the source for political leadership, public welfare and temple restoration.
🏛️ Governance
Her rule is associated with effective administration and public welfare.
🛕 Temple Restoration
Her patronage extended to important religious sites including Kashi, Somnath, Vishnupad and Maheshwar.
🏙️ Maheshwar
Maheshwar became an important centre associated with her rule.
👑 Leadership
Her rule provides an important example of female political authority within eighteenth-century regional states.
Maratha Battles — Build the Story
Shivaji defeated Afzal Khan.
Treaty with the Mughals.
Marathas recaptured Kondana.
Important Maratha victory over the Mughals.
Baji Rao I defeated the Nizam.
Marathas defeated the Portuguese and captured Vasai.
Third Battle of Panipat — 1761
The Marathas were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
Military Losses
The Marathas suffered severe military losses.
Leadership Crisis
The battle resulted in the loss of important leadership figures.
Political Shock
The defeat temporarily weakened Maratha influence in North India.
Recovery
Maratha power was subsequently rebuilt, particularly under Madhav Rao I and important regional leaders.
Panipat was a major setback, but it did not immediately or permanently end Maratha power.
Madhav Rao I and the Recovery
After Panipat, Maratha power was gradually reconstructed.
Third Battle of Panipat weakened Maratha power.
He reorganised administration and worked to restore Maratha influence.
Scindias, Holkars and other chiefs contributed to the revival of Maratha influence.
Why is it inaccurate to describe Panipat as the immediate end of the Maratha Empire?
Marathas and the British
The growing power of the British East India Company eventually brought the Maratha political system into direct conflict with British expansion.
First Anglo-Maratha War.
Maratha forces defeated the British; the Treaty of Wadgaon followed.
Treaty of Salbai helped establish a period of relative stability.
The Treaty of Bassein became a major turning point in Maratha–British relations.
Three Anglo-Maratha Wars
| War | Period | Outcome / Significance |
|---|---|---|
| First Anglo-Maratha War | 1775–1782 | Ended with the Treaty of Salbai. |
| Second Anglo-Maratha War | 1803–1805 | British victories weakened Maratha sovereignty. |
| Third Anglo-Maratha War | 1817–1818 | British victory ended the political power of the Peshwa. |
First → 1775–82
Second → 1803–05
Third → 1817–18
Treaty of Bassein — 1802
The Treaty of Bassein was an important turning point in the weakening of Maratha political autonomy.
The treaty brought the Peshwa into a subsidiary alliance framework with the British and generated opposition from other Maratha chiefs.
The treaty can be studied as an example of how British diplomatic strategy and internal divisions among Indian powers could reinforce one another.
Why Did Maratha Power Decline?
1. Internal Rivalry
Regional chiefs and the Peshwa often pursued competing interests.
2. Weak Leadership
After Madhav Rao I, political instability increased.
3. Military Challenges
The British developed strong infantry, artillery and logistical systems.
4. Economic Pressure
Continuous warfare placed pressure on financial resources.
5. Political Fragmentation
The Confederacy’s semi-autonomous structure made unified action difficult.
6. British Strategy
The British exploited divisions among Maratha political actors and gradually expanded their influence.
Maratha Naval Power
The Marathas also developed maritime capabilities along the western coast.
Kanhoji Angre is associated with the development and leadership of Maratha naval power.
🌊 Western Coast
The Konkan coastline was strategically important.
⚓ Naval Warfare
Naval forces challenged European maritime powers operating along the coast.
💰 Trade
Control of coastal routes had economic and strategic importance.
📉 Later Decline
The weakening of Maratha naval power contributed to the increasing dominance of British maritime power.
From Shivaji to British Rule
Shivaji → territorial consolidation → forts → administration
Sambhaji → Rajaram → Tarabai → continued resistance against the Mughals
Shahu → Balaji Vishwanath → Baji Rao I → rapid expansion
Scindias + Holkars + Gaekwads + Bhonsles → regional autonomy
Internal rivalry + Anglo-Maratha Wars → 1817–18 → end of Peshwa power
How to Write a Mains Answer
“Discuss the transformation of Maratha power from Shivaji’s Swarajya to the Peshwa-led Maratha Confederacy.”
Introduction
Begin with the emergence of Maratha power under Shivaji in the seventeenth century.
Body
- Shivaji’s territorial consolidation.
- Ashtapradhan and administrative organisation.
- Military mobility and forts.
- Resistance under Sambhaji, Rajaram and Tarabai.
- Shahu and rise of the Peshwas.
- Baji Rao I and northern expansion.
- Growth of regional Maratha houses.
- Emergence of the Confederacy.
Conclusion
The transformation produced a powerful but increasingly decentralised political system whose internal divisions later became a major vulnerability.
Self-Test I
Shivaji was formally crowned at Raigad in 1674 and assumed the title Chhatrapati.
Self-Test II
The Ashtapradhan was the council of eight ministers associated with Shivaji’s administration.
Self-Test III
The Battle of Palkhed in 1728 demonstrated Baji Rao I’s highly mobile military strategy against the Nizam.
Self-Test IV
1. Scindias — Gwalior
2. Holkars — Indore
3. Gaekwads — Baroda
4. Bhonsles — Nagpur
Which of the pairs are correctly matched?
All four associations are important for understanding the Maratha Confederacy.
Self-Test V
The Marathas were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
Self-Test VI
The Treaty of Bassein of 1802 became a major turning point in the British–Maratha relationship.
Self-Test VII
This sequence captures the broad transformation of Maratha political power.
Self-Test VIII
1. Internal rivalry
2. Political fragmentation
3. British military and financial advantages
4. Anglo-Maratha Wars
The decline resulted from interconnected internal weaknesses and increasing British military, diplomatic and financial power.
20 Facts You Must Remember
Can You Explain the Marathas?
- Why was Shivaji’s political project significant?
- How did geography influence Maratha warfare?
- Why did the Peshwas become more powerful than the Chhatrapati?
- Why did Maratha expansion produce a Confederacy?
- Why was Panipat a setback but not the immediate end of Maratha power?
- How did internal divisions assist British expansion?
Shivaji → Swarajya → Administration → Military mobility → Mughal resistance → Sambhaji/Rajaram/Tarabai → Shahu → Peshwas → Baji Rao I → Expansion → Confederacy → Panipat → Recovery → Anglo-Maratha Wars → 1817–18
Module Complete
Before moving to the next chapter, revise the timeline once, remember the four major Maratha houses, and practise writing a 150-word answer on the transition from Shivaji’s Swarajya to the Peshwa-led Confederacy.
Connect this topic with Later Mughals, Regional Kingdoms, Anglo-Mysore relations, British expansion and the decline of the Mughal Empire.
