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1. First World War

India contributed soldiers, resources and financial support to the British war effort. Many Indian political leaders expected meaningful constitutional concessions after the war.

2. Growth of nationalist expectations

The Home Rule movement, the Lucknow Pact of 1916 and the wider nationalist campaign strengthened demands for greater Indian participation in government.

3. International developments

The First World War weakened the prestige of European imperial powers. The Russian Revolution of 1917 also demonstrated the political impact of mass mobilisation and demands for self-determination.

4. British policy of gradual reform

The British government proposed constitutional changes while retaining control over the pace and extent of political development. The reforms were presented as a step towards responsible government within the British Empire.

Date and announcement

On 20 August 1917, Edwin Montagu announced the British government’s policy of increasing Indian association in every branch of administration and gradually developing self-governing institutions.

Responsible government

The declared objective was the progressive realisation of responsible government in India, but as an integral part of the British Empire.

Why was the declaration significant?

It publicly acknowledged responsible government as a long-term constitutional objective. However, the declaration did not provide immediate self-government or establish a fixed timetable for full responsibility.

From declaration to legislation

The government announced detailed reforms in July 1918. These proposals formed the basis of the Government of India Act, 1919.

What does dyarchy mean?

Dyarchy means dual government. Under the 1919 Act, provincial subjects were divided into two categories: reserved subjects and transferred subjects.

Reserved subjects

These remained under the Governor and his executive councillors, who were not responsible to the elected provincial legislature.

Transferred subjects

These were administered by ministers appointed from among the elected members of provincial legislative councils. The ministers were responsible to the legislature.

The Governor’s position

The Governor remained the executive head of the province and retained important powers, including intervention in specified circumstances and the ability to take over the administration of transferred subjects if constitutional machinery failed.

No responsible government at the Centre

The Governor-General remained the chief executive authority. The central executive was not responsible to the legislature, and the Governor-General retained extensive powers over legislation and finance.

Bicameral central legislature

The former central legislative council was replaced by two chambers:

• Council of State: the upper house, with a five-year term.
• Central Legislative Assembly: the lower house, with a three-year term.

Restricted electoral participation

Direct elections were introduced for the central legislature, but the franchise was restricted by qualifications relating to property, taxation or education. The electorate represented only a small fraction of India’s population.

Governor-General’s overriding powers

The Governor-General could restore cuts in grants, certify bills rejected by the central legislature and issue ordinances. The legislature could not remove the executive from office.

1. Expansion of provincial councils

Provincial legislative councils were enlarged, with approximately 70 per cent of members to be elected. The franchise remained limited.

2. Extension of communal and class representation

The system of communal and class electorates was extended. Separate electorates were provided for communities including Sikhs, Indian Christians and Anglo-Indians, in addition to Muslims.

3. Women’s voting rights

The Act opened the way for women to vote, subject to the applicable qualifications and subsequent provincial arrangements. It did not introduce universal adult suffrage.

4. Provincial and central budgets

The provincial and central budgets were separated. Provincial legislatures were authorised to make their own budgets, although their powers remained restricted.

5. High Commissioner for India

The Act provided for a High Commissioner for India in London, with responsibilities including the promotion of Indian trade in Europe and the transfer of certain functions previously performed by the Secretary of State.

6. Secretary of State’s salary

The Secretary of State for India was henceforth to be paid from the British Exchequer rather than Indian revenues.

1. Very limited franchise

Voting rights were restricted by qualifications. Most Indians remained outside the electorate.

2. Central executive remained unaccountable

The central legislature could not control the Governor-General and his executive council in the manner required for responsible government.

3. Dyarchy was difficult to operate

The division of provincial subjects created parallel administrative arrangements. Ministers lacked control over important areas such as finance and bureaucracy, generating friction.

4. Extensive discretionary powers

Governors and the Governor-General could override legislative decisions in specified circumstances, limiting the effective authority of elected representatives.

5. Congress’s response

At its special session in Bombay in August 1918, under Hasan Imam’s presidency, the Congress declared the reforms disappointing and unsatisfactory and demanded effective self-government.