Non-Cooperation Movement
The transition to a mass nationalist struggle, 1920–1922
What was the Non-Cooperation Movement?
The Non-Cooperation Movement was a nationwide campaign led by Mahatma Gandhi and adopted by the Indian National Congress to oppose British rule through peaceful non-cooperation. Instead of relying only on petitions and constitutional methods, it called upon Indians to withdraw their cooperation from colonial institutions.
Period
1920–1922; formally launched on 1 August 1920.
Principal leader
Mahatma Gandhi, working with Congress and Khilafat leaders.
Political objective
Attainment of Swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means.
Turning point
The Chauri Chaura incident of 5 February 1922 led Gandhi to withdraw the movement.
Remember: it was a mass movement, not simply a boycott campaign. It brought students, lawyers, peasants, workers, traders and other groups into nationalist politics in different ways.
Why did the movement emerge?
The political atmosphere after the First World War created widespread dissatisfaction. Several developments weakened confidence in British promises and helped Gandhi mobilise people on a national scale.
Emergency powers and restrictions on civil liberties provoked opposition and Gandhi’s satyagraha campaign.
The massacre at Amritsar and the response to it deepened public anger and distrust of colonial rule.
Muslim political mobilisation over the future of the Ottoman Caliphate created an opportunity for joint political action.
Gandhi argued that Indians should withdraw cooperation from the colonial system rather than continue to seek redress through established channels alone.
The Khilafat issue and Hindu-Muslim cooperation
After the First World War, many Indian Muslims feared that the victorious Allied Powers would weaken or dismantle the Ottoman Caliphate. The Caliph was regarded by many Muslims as an important religious and political figure. The Khilafat movement sought to influence British policy towards Turkey and the Caliphate.
Key leaders
Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, popularly known as the Ali brothers, alongside other Khilafat leaders.
Gandhi’s position
Gandhi supported the Khilafat cause and saw cooperation with its leaders as an opportunity for united anti-colonial action.
Congress connection
The Congress adopted non-cooperation, connecting the Khilafat issue with the wider nationalist struggle.
Historical importance
The alliance brought substantial Muslim participation into the wider movement, although unity faced pressures and limitations.
Methods and programme of non-cooperation
The programme aimed to weaken colonial authority by withdrawing Indian participation from institutions and practices that sustained it. It combined boycott with constructive work.
Boycott of institutions
- Government schools and colleges
- Law courts and legal practice
- Legislative councils
- Official titles and honours
Economic boycott
- Foreign cloth and other foreign goods
- Public burning of foreign cloth
- Picketing shops selling foreign cloth and liquor
- Promotion of swadeshi goods
Constructive programme
- Hand-spinning and khadi
- Hindu-Muslim unity
- Removal of untouchability
- National education and self-reliance
Guiding principle
- Non-violence
- Mass participation
- Self-discipline
- Peaceful and legitimate means
Calcutta and Nagpur sessions, 1920
The Congress debated and adopted the programme in stages. The special session at Calcutta in September 1920 approved non-cooperation; the Nagpur session in December 1920 endorsed the programme and reorganised the Congress.
| Feature | Calcutta, September 1920 | Nagpur, December 1920 |
|---|---|---|
| Main development | Special session approved the non-cooperation resolution. | Annual session endorsed the programme and consolidated the Congress’s commitment. |
| Political goal | Support for the non-cooperation strategy. | Swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means replaced the earlier formulation of self-government through constitutional means. |
| Organisation | Debate and approval of the campaign. | Congress Working Committee of 15 members; provincial committees organised on linguistic lines; local committees strengthened. |
| Membership | Growing support for wider mobilisation. | Entry fee reduced to four annas, helping broaden participation. |
Gandhi believed that full implementation of the programme could bring Swaraj within a year. This was a political expectation associated with the campaign, not an outcome that was achieved.
Who participated, and how?
The movement spread beyond established political circles. Participation varied by region and social group; people often interpreted the national call through their own local concerns.
Students and teachers
Students left government institutions and joined national schools and colleges, including Jamia Millia, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat Vidyapeeth and Bihar Vidyapeeth.
Lawyers
Several prominent lawyers gave up legal practice, including C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and C. Rajagopalachari.
Women
Women joined picketing and volunteer activities. Basanti Devi, wife of C.R. Das, was among the women volunteers who courted arrest in 1921.
Peasants and workers
Peasant mobilisation and labour protests intersected with the wider campaign. Jawaharlal Nehru encouraged kisan sabhas; workers and plantation labourers also protested in some areas.
Prominent figures included C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, the Ali brothers and many regional organisers. The movement’s reach was extensive, but participation and priorities were not uniform throughout India.
Government response and the final phase
As the movement expanded in 1921, the government increasingly used arrests, restrictions on meetings, press controls and bans on volunteer organisations. Leaders and activists faced prosecution and imprisonment.
The campaign gathered momentum. Gandhi and Khilafat leaders toured the country, while boycotts and demonstrations expanded.
The Ali brothers were arrested after their speeches on the army and the Khilafat cause.
The visit of the Prince of Wales was met by a Congress-backed boycott and hartals in many places; some demonstrations were accompanied by violence.
Gandhi warned that civil disobedience would be launched from Bardoli if political prisoners were not released and press restrictions were not removed.
Chauri Chaura, 5 February 1922
Chauri Chaura was a town in Gorakhpur district in the United Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh). A confrontation between protesters and police escalated into a violent incident that became the immediate trigger for Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the movement.
Volunteers had been campaigning against liquor sales and high food prices.
After a confrontation involving police and protesters, firing and escalating anger led to violence.
The crowd set fire to the police station. Twenty-two policemen were killed.
Gandhi concluded that the movement could not continue on its existing scale without a stronger commitment to non-violence.
Why did Gandhi withdraw the movement?
Gandhi believed non-violence was essential to the movement’s legitimacy and strategy. He felt that many participants had not yet fully understood or internalised the discipline required for a non-violent mass struggle.
Gandhi’s reasoning
He feared that continuing amid violent incidents would turn the campaign into a movement inconsistent with satyagraha.
Congress action
The Congress Working Committee met at Bardoli in February 1922 and resolved to stop law-breaking activity and concentrate on constructive work.
Constructive work
Khadi, national education, temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity and the removal of untouchability were emphasised.
Criticism
C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru were among leaders who expressed disagreement or bewilderment at the decision.
Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and sentenced to six years in prison. The withdrawal remains a major point for historical analysis because it exposed differences over non-violence, mass initiative and political strategy.
Achievements, limitations and legacy
Significance
- Expanded nationalism into towns, villages and new social groups.
- Made boycott and swadeshi central to mass political action.
- Strengthened Congress organisation beyond annual sessions.
- Created national educational alternatives.
- Helped establish non-violent mass mobilisation as a major political method.
Limitations
- Swaraj was not achieved during the movement.
- Participation and demands varied between regions and groups.
- Maintaining non-violent discipline on a national scale proved difficult.
- Withdrawal generated disagreement over leadership and strategy.
- The Khilafat issue later weakened with developments in Turkey.
From Non-Cooperation to later politics
The end of the movement did not end nationalist politics. Congress leaders debated how to proceed, contributing to the emergence of the Swarajists and the No-Changers. Constructive work continued, while socialist ideas, labour organisation, peasant movements and revolutionary activity developed in the 1920s.
Key dates, people and concepts
| Date / concept | Remember |
|---|---|
| 1 August 1920 | Formal launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement. |
| September 1920 | Special Congress session at Calcutta approved the programme. |
| December 1920 | Nagpur session endorsed the programme and reorganised Congress. |
| Ali brothers | Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali; leading figures in the Khilafat movement. |
| Tilak Swaraj Fund | One crore rupees collected during the campaign. |
| 5 February 1922 | Chauri Chaura incident; 22 policemen were killed. |
| February 1922 | Gandhi withdrew the movement; constructive work was emphasised. |
| March 1922 | Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years in prison. |
- Calcutta approved the resolution; Nagpur endorsed it and made organisational changes.
- The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements were linked, but their immediate aims differed.
- Chauri Chaura was on 5 February 1922; withdrawal followed later that month.
- Gandhi’s emphasis on non-violence was central to the withdrawal decision.
- The movement did not achieve Swaraj within a year.
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