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Tag: NET History – Unit V: Administration and Economy (1200–1750 CE)

  • UGC NET History Unit-5 Administration and Economy (1200–1750 CE)

    (Delhi Sultanate → Mughals → Deccan → Marathas → Economy & Trade)

    🏛️ 1. Administration under the Delhi Sultanate

    🔹 Nature of the State

    • The Sultanate was a theo-centric monarchy, meaning the Sultan was considered the shadow of God (Zil-i-Ilahi).

    • Not purely theocratic — religious laws (Sharia) were applied, but practical politics often overrode religious control.

    • The Sultan was the head of state, army, and justice.

    🔹 Central Administration

    Office Head Function
    Sultan – Supreme authority; head of military, judiciary, and administration.
    Naib-i-Mulk (Naib Sultan) Deputy Sultan

    Assisted or replaced Sultan in absence.
    Wazir (Diwan-i-Wizarat)

    Finance minister

    		 Controlled revenue and expenditure.
    Diwan-i-Arz

    Ariz-i-Mamalik

    		 Head of military organization.
    Diwan-i-Insha Dabir Managed royal correspondence.
    Diwan-i-Rasalat

    Sadr-us-Sudur

    		 Head of religious and charitable matters.
    Qazi-ul-Quzat

    Chief Qazi

    		 Head of judiciary, enforced Sharia law.

    🔹 Provincial and Local Administration

    • Empire divided into Iqtas (provinces) under Iqtedars.

    • Subah → Shiq → Pargana → Village hierarchy.

    • Local officers:

      • Amil (revenue officer)

      • Muqaddam (village headman)

      • Patwari (record keeper)

    🔹 Law of Succession

    • No fixed rule; not hereditary.

    • Sultan chosen by nobility or military elites (e.g., Chahalgani in early period).

    • Led to frequent disputes and palace intrigues.

    ⚖️ 2. Sher Shah Suri’s Administrative Reforms (1540–1545)

    Sher Shah re-established efficient governance after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

    🔹 Key Reforms

    Field Reform
    Revenue Land measured and classified based on fertility. Introduced zabt system and Patta(ownership deed).
    Currency

    Introduced Rupiya (silver coin) and standardized coinage.
    Military

    Maintained regular army, horse branding (dagh), and descriptive rolls (chehra).
    Roads and Communication

    Built Grand Trunk Road (Sonargaon to Peshawar), planted trees, built sarais.
    Justice

    Equal law for all; strict control on officials.
    Administration

    Empire divided into Sarkars → Parganas → Villages.

    Legacy: His system became the model for Akbar’s administration.

    👑 3. Mughal Administration (Central, Provincial, Local)

    🔹 Nature of the Mughal State

    • Highly centralized monarchy, yet flexible and inclusive.

    • Emperor seen as Padshah (absolute sovereign).

    • Religious policy varied: Akbar’s Sulh-i-Kul vs Aurangzeb’s orthodoxy.

    🔹 Central Administration

    Department Head Function
    Emperor – Supreme authority; source of all power.
    Wazir / Diwan-i-Ala

    Finance minister; later called Diwan of Empire.
    Mir Bakshi

    Military head; managed mansabdars and salaries.
    Mir Saman

    Head of royal household and stores.
    Sadr-us-Sudur

    Head of religious charities and endowments.
    Qazi-ul-Quzat Chief justice.

    🔹 Provincial Administration

    • Empire divided into Subahs (provinces) → Sarkars → Parganas → Villages.

    • Headed by a Subahdar (governor).

    • Diwan (revenue), Bakshi (military), Qazi (justice), Kotwal (police) assisted him.

    🔹 Mansabdari System

    • Introduced by Akbar.

    • Each noble (Mansabdar) was assigned:

      • Zat (personal rank/salary)

      • Sawar (number of cavalry to maintain).

    • Salary could be in cash or jagir.

    • Ensured central control over the nobility.

    🔹 Jagirdari System

    • Jagir = land assignment for revenue collection instead of salary.

    • Jagirdar collected revenue but could not own land.

    • Rotation of jagirs prevented feudal independence.

    • By 17th century, excessive jagir demands caused economic crisis (Jagir shortage).

    🏯 4. Deccan and South Indian Administration

    🔶 Vijayanagara Empire

    • Kingship was hereditary and divine; assisted by council of ministers.

    • Provinces: Nadu, Sthala, Grama.

    • Revenue based on produce (1/6th).

    • Well-organized army, efficient taxation, and irrigation system.

    • Local self-government continued in villages.

    🔶 Bahmani Kingdom

    • Modeled after Delhi Sultanate.

    • Central officers: Wazir (Peshwa), Amir-i-Jumla, Mir Jumlana, Sadr-i-Jahan.

    • Provincial governors called Tarafdars.

    • Mahmud Gawan reformed revenue and reduced corruption.

    🛡️ 5. Maratha Administration

    🔹 Founder: Shivaji (1627–1680)

    • Established Swaraj; coronated as Chhatrapati at Raigad (1674 CE).

    • Efficient civil-military system and decentralized governance.

    🔹 The Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight Ministers)

    Office Title Function
    1 Peshwa Prime Minister; chief executive.
    2 Amatya Finance and audit.
    3 Sachiv Official correspondence.
    4 Mantri Intelligence and record keeping.
    5 Senapati Commander-in-chief.
    6 Sumant / Dabir Foreign affairs.
    7 Nyayadhish Chief justice.
    8 Panditrao Ecclesiastical head, religious charities.

    Local levels: Deshmukh (district head), Patil (village head), Kulkarni (accountant).

    🌍 6. Frontier and Inter-State Relations

    Delhi Sultanate

    • Adopted policy of military expansion and defense against Mongols (Northwest Frontier).

    • Alauddin and Balban strengthened borders.

    Mughals

    • Controlled frontiers with fortifications, diplomacy, and alliances.

    • Frontier provinces like Kabul, Qandahar, and Bengal managed by strong governors.

    • Deccan policy under Akbar–Aurangzeb led to annexations but drained resources.

    🌾 7. Agrarian Structure and Rural Economy

    Aspect Features
    Land Ownership Ultimate owner: State (Emperor/Sultan). Cultivators had occupancy rights.
    Revenue Assessment

    Zabt, Batai (share of produce), Kankut (measurement method).
    Peasantry

    Backbone of economy; paid taxes and rent.
    Agricultural Loans

    State often advanced seeds/loans during famine (taccavi loans).
    Irrigation

    Canals under Firoz Shah; tanks and wells in Deccan & South.
    Village Society

    Self-sufficient; artisans, peasants, and officials coexisted in panchayat system.

    🏭 8. Industry and Technology

    Major Industries

    • Cotton textiles: Surat, Dhaka, Burhanpur, Masulipatnam.

    • Silk and brocade: Banaras, Murshidabad.

    • Metalwork and weapons: Lahore, Delhi, Jaunpur.

    • Agro-based industries: Sugar, indigo, oil pressing.

    Organization

    • Production by guilds and karkhanas (royal workshops).

    • Technology: Handlooms, spinning wheels, dyeing and block printing.

    💰 9. Trade and Commerce

    Aspect Details
    Internal Trade Active between towns and villages; regulated markets under Khaljis and Mughals.
    External Trade

    Flourished with Arabs, Persians, Portuguese, Dutch, English.
    Ports

    Surat, Cambay, Calicut, Masulipatnam, Nagapattinam, Hooghly.
    European Trade

    Portuguese first (1498), followed by Dutch (1605), English (1608), French (1664).
    Trade Goods

    Textiles, spices, indigo, silk, sugar, saltpetre, precious stones.
    Transport

    Horses, camels, bullock carts; rivers for inland transport; improved roads (GT Road).

    🧾 Financial Instruments

    • Hundi: Indigenous bill of exchange for safe money transfer.

    • Insurance (Bima): Merchants insured goods during transport.

    • Currency: Silver rupiya (Sher Shah); gold mohur and copper dam (Mughals).

    • Mint System: Imperial mints in Delhi, Lahore, Ahmedabad, and Surat.

    📉 State Income & Expenditure

    • Main income: Land revenue (⅔ of total).

    • Other sources: Customs, jizya, war booty, tributes.

    • Expenditure: Army, royal household, public works, charity.

    🌾 Famines and Peasant Revolts

    • Frequent due to crop failure, over-taxation, and wars.

    • Major revolts:

      • Satnami and Jat rebellions (Aurangzeb period).

      • Deccan peasant uprisings (17th century).

    • Famines recorded in Mughal chronicles (1630–32, 1661–62).

    🧭 10. Summary Table

    Theme Delhi Sultanate Mughal Empire Deccan / Maratha
    Nature of State Theo-centric monarchy Centralized empire

    Hereditary kingship (Vijayanagara), Bureaucratic (Marathas)
    Revenue System Iqta system

    Zabt & Jagirdari

    		 Ryotwari & village-based
    Army

    Feudal contingents

    		 Mansabdari cavalry Senapati and infantry
    Economy

    Agrarian-urban blend

    Commercial & urban expansion

    		 Agricultural and artisanal economy
    Trade Inland & Arab trade Global maritime trade Coastal and inland trade
    Currency

    Tankha, Dinar

    		 Rupiya, Mohur, Dam Hons, Pagodas, Tankas