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Tag: Performing Arts Dance Drama Theatre UGC NET NTA Exam

  • UGC NET Performing Arts Dance Drama Theatre Unit 1

    Cultural History of India (From Prehistoric Period to CE 1200)

    (With special focus on Vedas, Epics and Purāṇas in relation to Dance & Theatre)

    1. Introduction

    The cultural history of India represents one of the world’s longest and most continuous artistic traditions. From the rhythmic cave paintings of the Stone Age to the codified classical arts of the early medieval period, India’s aesthetic growth mirrors its spiritual and social evolution. Between the Prehistoric era and CE 1200, Indian culture developed through the integration of ritual, religion, philosophy, and performance.
    Art was never separate from life; it was a vehicle of moral reflection, social harmony, and divine realization. The Nāṭyaśāstra describes this unity as “loka anukṛti”— the imitation and interpretation of life itself.

    2. Cultures of India: From Prehistoric to CE 1200

    Prehistoric Foundations

    The Bhimbetka rock shelters (c. 7000 BCE) in Madhya Pradesh preserve the earliest evidence of human artistic expression in India. Painted scenes of hunting, communal dancing, and rhythmic movement indicate that ritual, rhythm, and gesture pre-dated language. These primal forms later evolved into organized performance.

    Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500 – 1500 BCE)

    The urban centres of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro reveal a society with aesthetic sophistication. The famous “Dancing Girl” bronze figurine embodies fluid posture and confidence, while terracotta musicians and seals reflect a ritualistic, rhythmic life. The arts already served a symbolic, possibly sacred purpose.

    Vedic Age (1500 – 500 BCE)

    During the Vedic period, art became intertwined with religious ritual and oral tradition. The Sāmaveda systematised chant and melody; the Yajurveda formalised ritual performance; the Ṛgveda celebrated cosmic rhythm through hymns; and the Atharvaveda explored mystic incantations. The performing arts thus originated as sacred actions— a union of music, recitation, and gesture offered to the divine.

    Classical and Gupta Age (4th – 6th century CE)

    The Gupta era is remembered as the “Golden Age” of Indian art. Literary works such as Kālidāsa’s Abhijñānaśākuntalamand the Ajanta murals exemplify the refinement of aesthetic theory, proportion, and grace. Art evolved from ritual to classical codification: sculptures illustrated dance poses (karanas), and literature articulated the principles of Rasa and Abhinaya.

    Early Medieval Period (7th – 12th century CE)

    Regionalisation of culture led to distinct temple and devotional traditions. The Bhakti spirit fostered temple-centred performance— Bharatanāṭyam in Tamil Nadu, Odissi in Odisha, Kūḍiyāṭṭam in Kerala— all deriving from the aesthetic and ritual frameworks laid down in the earlier centuries.

    3. Evolution of Art: Cave Paintings, Sculpture, and Visual Representation

    Indian art evolved as a visual scripture of the civilization’s spiritual ideals.

    • Cave Paintings: Bhimbetka and Ajanta reveal continuity from primitive outline to sophisticated narrative. Ajanta (2nd BCE – 6th CE) murals show elegant dancers, musicians, and courtly scenes inspired by Jātaka tales— proof of early dramaturgy through visual imagery.

    • Sculpture: From Mauryan pillars to Gupta temple reliefs, sculpture captured rhythm and emotion in static form. The Yaksha–Yakshi figures express fertility and grace, while the Khajuraho and Konark temples translate movement into stone— a “frozen performance.”

    • Architecture: Theatre architecture described in the Nāṭyaśāstra— open, circular, and audience-centred— influenced later temple courtyards that served as stages for ritual performances.

    Thus, visual art, music, and drama developed together, each reinforcing the other in a unified aesthetic vision.

    4. Evolution of Dance and Drama (Nāṭya)

    (a) Divine-Origin Theory

    According to the Nāṭyaśāstra (c. 200 BCE – 200 CE), Nāṭya originated when the gods requested Brahmā to create an art form accessible to all varṇas. He composed the Nāṭya Veda, drawing:

    • Speech (Pathya) from Ṛgveda,

    • Music (Gīta) from Sāmaveda,

    • Gesture (Abhinaya) from Yajurveda, and

    • Emotion (Rasa) from Atharvaveda.

    Thus, Nāṭya became the “Fifth Veda.” Its purpose was śikṣā (education), vihāra (entertainment), and mokṣa (spiritual release). Art was divine in origin but meant for human upliftment.

    (b) Art as a Product of Society and Ritual

    Parallel to the divine theory runs a sociological view: art evolved from communal ritual and belief systems. Agricultural festivals, fertility rites, and heroic storytelling led to folk theatre and sacred dance. Over time, these merged with philosophical reflection to form classical theatre— both a social mirror and a spiritual discipline.

    5. The Vedas, Epics, and Purāṇas — Content, Character, and Relevance to Dance & Theatre

    This corpus forms the conceptual and narrative foundation of Indian performing arts.

    The Vedas: The Earliest Aesthetic Blueprint

    • Ṛgveda: Collection of hymns celebrating natural forces— the idea of cosmic rhythm (ṛta) that later informed the rhythm (tāla) of dance and music.

    • Sāmaveda: The “Veda of melody,” transforming recited hymns into musical performance. The tonal patterns of sāman chants evolved into the structure of rāga and nāda.

    • Yajurveda: Describes sacrificial rites involving precise bodily actions and gestures— precursors of Āṅgika Abhinaya.

    • Atharvaveda: Explores emotional and mystical incantations, forming the psychological dimension of Rasa and Bhāva.

    Together they provide the spiritual grammar of Indian art— linking sound, gesture, and emotion with cosmic order.

    The Epics: Ramayana & Mahabharata

    Ramayana (Valmiki, c. 500 BCE – 100 BCE)

    The Ramayana is both moral narrative and performative text. Its content— Rama’s exile, Sita’s trial, the battle with Ravana, and the Pattābhisheka (coronation)— is inherently dramatic. Character archetypes (Rama – ideal hero, Sita – purity, Hanuman – devotion, Ravana – ego) embody distinct Rasas: Vīra, Karuṇa, Śṛṅgāra, Raudra.
    In theatre and dance, these episodes translate into expressive acts: Rāmlīlā in North India, Kathakali’s Rāma Charita, and Bhavāyā performances. The text teaches Dharma through spectacle, bridging ethics and aesthetics.

    Mahabharata (Vyāsa, c. 400 BCE – 400 CE)

    The Mahabharata, the world’s longest epic, dramatizes the conflict between duty and desire. It is structurally theatrical: dialogues, moral debates, and battle scenes read like scripted acts. The Dyūta Sabha (dice game) and Draupadī Vastra-harana (disrobing) are archetypal scenes of Karuṇa and Raudra Rasas. The Bhagavad Gītā, a philosophical dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, represents the drama of consciousness itself.
    These episodes became templates for classical dramaturgy, influencing Nāṭaka (heroic play) and Prakaraṇa (social play) genres described in the Nāṭyaśāstra. The Mahabharata’s emphasis on moral complexity underlies the layered emotional structure of Indian theatre.

    Regional Epic: Cilappadikaram (Tamil, c. 2nd Century CE)

    Composed by Ilango Adigal, the Cilappadikaram (“The Jeweled Anklet”) integrates music, dance, and ethics. Its heroine Kannagi, wronged by the king, proves her virtue through dramatic and ritualistic acts culminating in divine justice. The text contains detailed accounts of:

    • Pann music (Tamil scale systems),

    • Rhythmic cycles (tāla),

    • Performer’s discipline and moral codes.
      It is thus both a literary epic and a practical manual of performance, paralleling the Nāṭyaśāstra in southern aesthetic theory. Many classical Tamil dance postures trace their lineage to its descriptions.

    Bhagavata Purāṇa (c. 9th Century CE)

    The Bhagavata Purāṇa shifted focus from heroic dharma to devotional emotion (Bhakti). Its tenth book narrates the life of Krishna— his childhood pranks, flute-playing, and Rāsa Līlā with the Gopīs. These episodes symbolise the soul’s union with the divine and gave rise to devotional dance-dramas across India: Rāslīlā in Braj, Sattriya in Assam, Manipuri Rāsa, and aspects of Kathak.
    The Purāṇa thus transformed art into devotion in motion, replacing ritual authority with emotional communion.

    Relevance to Dance and Theatre

    1. Narrative Source: The epics and Purāṇas supply stories, characters, and archetypes that constitute the repertory of Indian theatre and dance.

    2. Emotional Spectrum: Each episode corresponds to specific Rasas, making them ideal for expressive performance.

    3. Didactic Function: Through enactment of divine tales, the audience learns moral and spiritual lessons— fulfilling the triple aim of śikṣā, vihāra, and mokṣa.

    4. Continuity: From temple sculptures to modern stage, these texts continue to animate Indian performance— proof of an unbroken cultural thread.

    6. Bhakti and Religious Movements (6th – 12th Century CE)

    The Bhakti movement redefined the purpose of art as devotional expression rather than ritual duty. The Alvārs (Vishnu devotees) and Nāyanmārs (Shiva devotees) composed hymns in local languages, democratising access to divine experience. Their songs were inherently performative— sung with gesture, dance, and communal participation.

    In South India, temple dancers (devadāsīs) offered seva through nṛtta and abhinaya; in the North, Rāslīlā and Rāmlīlādramatized the love of Krishna and the virtue of Rama. The saints Mīrābāī and Chaitanya embodied dance as worship, fusing emotion (bhāva) with movement.

    These movements influenced all art forms:

    • Bharatanāṭyam and Odissi absorbed Bhakti poetry;

    • Kīrtan and Bhajan became musical theatre;

    • Yakṣagāna and Ankīya Nāṭa integrated narrative chanting and dance.

    Through Bhakti, performance became collective prayer, turning temples and streets into theatres of divine love.

    7. Conclusion

    From the prehistoric rock-dance of Bhimbetka to the spiritual theatre of Bhakti, India’s cultural history demonstrates a continuous quest to express truth through beauty. The Vedas provided the metaphysical framework, the Epics and Purāṇas supplied narrative and emotion, and the Nāṭyaśāstra gave form and theory.
    By CE 1200, India had created a comprehensive aesthetic system where art mirrored life, and life itself became performance. Dance and theatre were not merely entertainment—they were manifestations of cosmic order and vehicles of self-realization.