Q1. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Sakyas had built a stupa over the bodily remains of Gautama Buddha at:

(1) Lumbini
(2) Nigliva
(3) Piprahwa
(4) Sahet-Mahet

Correct Answer: (3) Piprahwa
Explanation:
Piprahwa (U.P.) revealed a stupa containing a reliquary with inscriptions referring to Buddha’s relics, confirming that Sakyas built the stupa there.

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Q2. Which of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched?

(Ancient city) — (Location)
(1) Pushkalavati – Charasadda
(2) Sakala – Sialakota
(3) Tamralipti – Tamluk
(4) Tagara – Deccan

Correct Answer: (2) Sakala – Sialakota
Explanation:
Sakala refers to Sialkot, not Sialakota.

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Q3. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer.

| List-I (Rulers) | List-II (Dynasty) |
|—|—|
| (a) Menander | (i) Saka |
| (b) Azes | (ii) Indo-Greek |
| (c) Lohana | (iii) Satavahana |
| (d) Gautamiputra Satakarni | (iv) Nahapana |

Options:
(1) (ii), (i), (iv), (iii)
(2) (iv), (ii), (iii), (i)
(3) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
(4) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)

Correct Answer: (1)
Explanation:
Menander – Indo-Greek; Azes – Saka ruler; Lohana – Nahapana; Gautamiputra Satakarni – Satavahana king.

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Q4. Who among the following questioned the Mauryan centralized bureaucracy by advocating a segmentary model of polity?

(1) R.S. Sharma
(2) Burton Stein
(3) D.D. Kosambi
(4) Romila Thapar

Correct Answer: (2) Burton Stein
Explanation:
Stein developed the Segmentary State theory, arguing that politico-administrative control weakened beyond the center.

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Q5. The Ashokan inscriptions were written in which script mainly in North-West India?

(1) Brahmi
(2) Tamil–Brahmi
(3) Kharosthi
(4) Gupta-Brahmi

Correct Answer: (3) Kharosthi
Explanation:
North-West Ashokan inscriptions employ Kharosthi under Indo-Greek cultural influence.

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Q6. With which ruler is Hathigumpha inscription associated?

(1) Kharavela
(2) Menander
(3) Rudradaman
(4) Gautamiputra Satakarni

Correct Answer: (1) Kharavela
Explanation:
It records military expeditions and public works by Jain King Kharavela of Kalinga.

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Q7. The correct chronological order of Post-Mauryan dynasties is:

(a) Sungas
(b) Satavahanas
(c) Indo-Greeks
(d) Kushanas

Options:
(1) (a), (c), (b), (d)
(2) (a), (b), (c), (d)
(3) (c), (a), (b), (d)
(4) (a), (c), (d), (b)

Correct Answer: (1) (a), (c), (b), (d)
Explanation:
Sequence: Sungas → Indo-Greeks → Satavahanas → Kushanas after Mauryan decline.

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Q8. Which ruler issued coins with the image of Buddha, indicating rise of Mahayana influence?

(1) Nahapana
(2) Menander
(3) Kanishka
(4) Rudradaman

Correct Answer: (3) Kanishka
Explanation:
Kanishka of Kushan dynasty promoted Mahayana Buddhism, minted coins with Buddha’s figure, and convened the Fourth Buddhist Council.

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Q9. Excavations at which site show the earliest evidence of stone-fortification in India?

(1) Taxila
(2) Rajgir
(3) Pataliputra
(4) Sisupalgarh

Correct Answer: (4) Sisupalgarh
Explanation:
Sisupalgarh fortification belongs to 3rd century BCE and is considered one of the earliest surviving city defenses.

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Q10. Which Buddhist Council led to division into Hinayana and Mahayana?

(1) First Council – Rajgir
(2) Second Council – Vaishali
(3) Third Council – Pataliputra
(4) Fourth Council – Kashmir

Correct Answer: (2) Second Council – Vaishali
Explanation:
Internal disputes on monastic discipline resulted in Sthaviravadins vs Mahasanghikas, the beginning of doctrinal splits.

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UNIT-2 Revision Points (as per the Syllabus)

• Rise of Magadha – Factors, dynasties

• Alexander’s invasion & impact

• Mauryan polity, economy, Ashoka’s Dhamma, Art & architecture

• Decline of Mauryan empire

• Sungas, Satavahanas, Kushanas, Sakas & Indo-Greeks

• Emergence of Mahayana, trade with Roman world

• Gandhara, Mathura & Amaravati art schools

Part A – Rise of Magadha and Alexander’s Invasion (Q1 – 20)

Q1. The rise of Magadha began mainly due to:
(A) Iron resources and fertile plains
(B) Proximity to sea trade
(C) Gold mines
(D) Foreign alliances
Answer: (A)
Explanation: Magadha’s iron deposits and fertile Ganga plains helped build a strong economy and army.

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Q2. The founder of the Haryanka dynasty was:
(A) Ajatasatru
(B) Bimbisara
(C) Mahapadma Nanda
(D) Udayin
Answer: (B)

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Q3. Bimbisara strengthened Magadha by:
(A) Conquests only
(B) Diplomatic marriages and alliances
(C) Religious reforms
(D) Trade with China
Answer: (B)

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Q4. Ajatasatru’s weapon of warfare was called:
(A) Vajra
(B) Rathamusala
(C) Gada
(D) Kunda
Answer: (B) – A chariot fitted with blades.

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Q5. The last ruler before the Mauryas was:
(A) Shishunaga
(B) Mahapadma Nanda
(C) Dhanananda
(D) Pushyamitra
Answer: (C)

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Q6. Alexander fought Porus at the battle of:
(A) Hydaspes (Jhelum)
(B) Beas
(C) Khyber
(D) Indus
Answer: (A)

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Q7. Alexander’s invasion took place in:
(A) 400 BCE
(B) 327 – 325 BCE
(C) 250 BCE
(D) 500 BCE
Answer: (B)

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Q8. The Greek historian who wrote Indica was:
(A) Ptolemy
(B) Megasthenes
(C) Arrian
(D) Strabo
Answer: (B)

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Q9. Immediate result of Alexander’s invasion:
(A) Destruction of cities
(B) Opening of north-west India to Greek contact
(C) End of Magadha
(D) Rise of Buddhism
Answer: (B)

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Q10. The empire that filled the power vacuum after Alexander was:
(A) Nandas
(B) Mauryas
(C) Sungas
(D) Guptas
Answer: (B)

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🟢 Part B – The Mauryan Empire (Q21 – 50)

Q21. Founder of the Mauryan Empire:
(A) Ashoka
(B) Chandragupta Maurya
(C) Bindusara
(D) Mahapadma Nanda
Answer: (B)

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Q22. Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nikator in:
(A) 321 BCE
(B) 305 BCE
(C) 273 BCE
(D) 261 BCE
Answer: (B)

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Q23. Seleucus received which gift in return?
(A) Indus region
(B) 500 elephants
(C) Gold coins
(D) Pearls
Answer: (B)

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Q24. The Greek ambassador to Chandragupta’s court was:
(A) Megasthenes
(B) Arrian
(C) Ptolemy
(D) Strabo
Answer: (A)

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Q25. Arthashastra deals with:
(A) Astronomy
(B) Political science and economics
(C) Religion
(D) Literature
Answer: (B)

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Q26. Bindusara’s Greek name “Amitrochates” means:
(A) Lover of peace
(B) Slayer of foes
(C) Friend of Greeks
(D) Pious king
Answer: (B)

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Q27. Ashoka’s Kalinga War was fought in:
(A) 273 BCE
(B) 261 BCE
(C) 250 BCE
(D) 232 BCE
Answer: (B)

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Q28. The main cause of Ashoka’s remorse was:
(A) Economic loss
(B) Huge bloodshed in Kalinga
(C) Defeat in battle
(D) Revolt of soldiers
Answer: (B)

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Q29. Ashoka’s Dhamma emphasized:
(A) Ritual sacrifices
(B) Moral and social duties
(C) Conquest by force
(D) Wealth accumulation
Answer: (B)

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Q30. Ashokan edicts are mostly in:
(A) Sanskrit and Kharosthi
(B) Prakrit and Brahmi
(C) Pali and Greek
(D) Tamil and Pali
Answer: (B)

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Q31. The Major Rock Edict XIII refers to:
(A) Kalinga War
(B) Animal sacrifice
(C) Missionaries to Sri Lanka
(D) Social reforms
Answer: (A)

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Q32. The Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath depicts:
(A) Bull capital
(B) Lion capital
(C) Elephant capital
(D) Horse capital
Answer: (B)

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Q33. Ashoka’s missionary son and daughter were:
(A) Kunal and Tissa
(B) Mahinda and Sanghamitta
(C) Susima and Devi
(D) Bindu and Rukmavati
Answer: (B)

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Q34. The Barabar caves were gifted to:
(A) Buddhists
(B) Ajivikas
(C) Jains
(D) Hindus
Answer: (B)

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Q35. The Mauryan capital was:
(A) Taxila
(B) Rajgir
(C) Pataliputra
(D) Ujjain
Answer: (C)

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Q36. The Mauryan administration was:
(A) Feudal
(B) Decentralized
(C) Highly centralized
(D) Tribal
Answer: (C)

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Q37. “Samaharta” in Mauryan administration was:
(A) Chief Justice
(B) Tax collector
(C) Army chief
(D) Chief minister
Answer: (B)

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Q38. The main cause of Mauryan decline:
(A) Religious tolerance
(B) Over-centralization and weak successors
(C) Lack of trade
(D) No army
Answer: (B)

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Q39. Pushyamitra Shunga overthrew:
(A) Ashoka
(B) Brihadratha Maurya
(C) Bindusara
(D) Dasaratha Maurya
Answer: (B)

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Q40. The Sarnath Lion Capital is the:
(A) National Flag
(B) National Emblem of India
(C) Symbol of Kalinga
(D) Coin Design
Answer: (B)

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🟢 Part C – Post-Mauryan Regional Powers (Q51 – 75)

Q51. The Indo-Greeks ruled mainly in:
(A) Eastern India
(B) North-west India
(C) Deccan
(D) South India
Answer: (B)

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Q52. Menander (Milinda) was converted to Buddhism by:
(A) Kautilya
(B) Nagasena
(C) Ashvaghosha
(D) Upagupta
Answer: (B)

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Q53. Founder of Shunga dynasty:
(A) Pushyamitra Shunga
(B) Vasumitra
(C) Brihadratha
(D) Ajatasatru
Answer: (A)

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Q54. Pushyamitra revived:
(A) Jainism
(B) Brahmanism and Vedic sacrifices
(C) Mahayana Buddhism
(D) Shaivism alone
Answer: (B)

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Q55. Satavahanas ruled in:
(A) North India
(B) Deccan (Andhra–Maharashtra)
(C) Bengal
(D) Kashmir
Answer: (B)

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Q56. Most famous Satavahana ruler:
(A) Simuka
(B) Gautamiputra Satakarni
(C) Pulamayi II
(D) Yajna Satakarni
Answer: (B)

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Q57. Satavahana inscriptions are in:
(A) Sanskrit
(B) Prakrit
(C) Tamil
(D) Pali
Answer: (B)

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Q58. Capital of Satavahanas:
(A) Pratishthana (Paithan)
(B) Taxila
(C) Kanchi
(D) Madurai
Answer: (A)

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Q59. Kushana ruler who convened Fourth Buddhist Council:
(A) Kujula Kadphises
(B) Kanishka
(C) Vima Kadphises
(D) Nahapana
Answer: (B)

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Q60. The Saka era began in:
(A) 78 CE
(B) 57 BCE
(C) 320 CE
(D) 273 BCE
Answer: (A)

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Q61. The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman I is written in:
(A) Prakrit
(B) Sanskrit
(C) Pali
(D) Greek
Answer: (B)

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Q62. Kharavela’s achievements are known from:
(A) Hathigumpha inscription
(B) Junagadh inscription
(C) Bharhut inscription
(D) Sarnath pillar
Answer: (A)

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Q63. Kharavela was a follower of:
(A) Buddhism
(B) Jainism
(C) Shaivism
(D) Vaishnavism
Answer: (B)

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Q64. Sangam literature belongs to:
(A) Tamil language
(B) Pali
(C) Prakrit
(D) Sanskrit
Answer: (A)

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Q65. Main Sangam kingdoms were:
(A) Chera, Chola, Pandya
(B) Maurya, Gupta, Nanda
(C) Kushan, Shaka, Satavahana
(D) Magadha, Kosala, Avanti
Answer: (A)

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Q66. Port associated with Roman trade in Kerala:
(A) Kaveripattinam
(B) Muziris
(C) Arikamedu
(D) Tamralipti
Answer: (B)

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Q67. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes:
(A) Indian religions
(B) Indo-Roman trade
(C) Gupta administration
(D) Buddhist doctrines
Answer: (B)

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Q68. Major export to Rome:
(A) Gold
(B) Spices and textiles
(C) Weapons
(D) Horses
Answer: (B)

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Q69. Mahayana Buddhism emerged under:
(A) Ashoka
(B) Kanishka
(C) Harsha
(D) Menander
Answer: (B)

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Q70. Gandhara art shows influence of:
(A) Persian art
(B) Greek art
(C) Chinese art
(D) Egyptian art
Answer: (B)

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Q71. Mathura school used which stone?
(A) Marble
(B) Red sandstone
(C) Granite
(D) Black basalt
Answer: (B)

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Q72. Amaravati school flourished in:
(A) Tamil Nadu
(B) Andhra Pradesh
(C) Kashmir
(D) Punjab
Answer: (B)

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Q73. The Junagadh inscription records repairs of:
(A) Canal of Ashoka
(B) Sudarshana Lake
(C) Barabar Caves
(D) Nalanda Monastery
Answer: (B)

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Q74. Satavahana coins often carry:
(A) Greek legends
(B) Both Prakrit and regional inscriptions
(C) Persian language
(D) Only Sanskrit
Answer: (B)

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Q75. Indo-Roman trade brought into India:
(A) Silver bullion
(B) Gold coins of Roman emperors
(C) Slaves
(D) Grain
Answer: (B)

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🟢 Part D – Gupta & Vakataka Age (Q76 – 90)

Q76. Founder of Gupta dynasty:
(A) Chandragupta I
(B) Samudragupta
(C) Chandragupta II
(D) Sri Gupta
Answer: (D)

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Q77. The title “Maharajadhiraja” was first assumed by:
(A) Samudragupta
(B) Chandragupta I
(C) Skandagupta
(D) Harsha
Answer: (B)

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Q78. Samudragupta’s conquests are recorded in:
(A) Sanchi Inscription
(B) Allahabad Pillar Inscription
(C) Junagadh Inscription
(D) Bhitari Inscription
Answer: (B)

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Q79. Chandragupta II defeated which western rulers?
(A) Indo-Greeks
(B) Sakas (Western Kshatrapas)
(C) Kushanas
(D) Satavahanas
Answer: (B)

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Q80. The Gupta Age is called the “Golden Age” because of:
(A) Political expansion only
(B) Advances in art, literature, and science
(C) Religious wars
(D) Trade with Rome
Answer: (B)

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Q81. The chief gold coin of Guptas was called:
(A) Karsapana
(B) Dinar
(C) Tanka
(D) Pana
Answer: (B)

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Q82. The Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is:
(A) Dravida style
(B) Early Nagara style
(C) Vesara style
(D) Gandhara style
Answer: (B)

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Q83. The famous Sanskrit poet Kalidasa flourished under:
(A) Ashoka
(B) Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
(C) Harsha
(D) Kanishka
Answer: (B)

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Q84. Aryabhata was a:
(A) Poet
(B) Astronomer and Mathematician
(C) Philosopher
(D) Physician
Answer: (B)

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Q85. Aryabhata’s work:
(A) Brihat Samhita
(B) Aryabhatiya
(C) Surya Siddhanta
(D) Charaka Samhita
Answer: (B)

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Q86. Varahamihira authored:
(A) Brihat Samhita
(B) Ashtadhyayi
(C) Mricchakatika
(D) Mudrarakshasa
Answer: (A)

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Q87. Medical science during Gupta Age was represented by:
(A) Sushruta and Charaka
(B) Patanjali
(C) Aryabhata
(D) Vasumitra
Answer: (A)

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Q88. Gupta land grants were usually recorded on:
(A) Palm leaves
(B) Copper plates
(C) Stone pillars
(D) Clay seals
Answer: (B)

Part D (continued) & Part E — Gupta decline, Harsha, Deccan Powers (Q89–Q100)

Q89. The dynasty that dealt the final blow to the Gupta power in the north was:
(A) Huns (Hephthalites)
(B) Sakas
(C) Kushanas
(D) Satavahanas
Answer: (A)
Explanation: The Huna (Hephthalite) invasions in the late 5th–6th centuries weakened Gupta power and contributed to its disintegration.

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Q90. Skandagupta is remembered for:
(A) Patronizing Kalidasa
(B) Defeating the Hunas and restoring Gupta authority temporarily
(C) Introducing the Saka era
(D) Building the Sarnath stupa
Answer: (B)
Explanation: Skandagupta fought Huna invasions and other internal challenges, preserving Gupta rule for a while.

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Q91. Harsha’s court poet and biographer was:
(A) Kalidasa
(B) Bana (Banabhatta)
(C) Harisena
(D) Varahamihira
Answer: (B)
Explanation: Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita, a principal source for Harsha’s life and times.

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Q92. Harsha shifted his capital to:
(A) Pataliputra
(B) Kanchipuram
(C) Kannauj
(D) Ujjain
Answer: (C)
Explanation: Kannauj became Harsha’s political and cultural center in northern India.

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Q93. Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited India during Harsha’s reign and described:
(A) The decline of Buddhism everywhere
(B) A flourishing Buddhist patronage and Harsha’s liberality toward religion
(C) Harsha’s conversion to Islam
(D) The rise of Saka power in the Deccan
Answer: (B)
Explanation: Xuanzang praises Harsha’s patronage of Buddhism and records institutional details like Nalanda.

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Q94. Harsha’s empire failed to establish long-term unity because:
(A) He faced strong southern empires like the Chalukyas and Pulakesin II
(B) Harsha had no army
(C) He refused to hold court at Kannauj
(D) He converted to Jainism late in life
Answer: (A)
Explanation: Southern powers (e.g., Pulakesin II of the Chalukyas) checked northern expansion; Harsha lacked permanent administrative structures to create durable empire.

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Q95. The Salankayanas and Vishnukundins were primarily located in:
(A) Western India (Gujarat)
(B) Coastal and inland Andhra region (Deccan)
(C) Northern Punjab
(D) Sri Lanka
Answer: (B)
Explanation: These dynasties ruled parts of Andhra/Telangana and played important roles in Deccan polity and culture.

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Q96. The Salankayanas are noted for:
(A) Patronage of Prakrit drama in Mathura
(B) Early inscriptions in Telugu-Prakrit and regional administration in Andhra
(C) Founding the Gupta dynasty
(D) Invading Rome
Answer: (B)
Explanation: Salankayana epigraphs reflect local administration and give early evidence of regional linguistic-cultural developments.

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Q97. Vishnukundin rulers are credited with:
(A) Establishing the Kalinga empire
(B) Promoting temple-building and Vaishnavite cults in Andhra-Telangana
(C) Creating the Mauryan bureaucracy
(D) Patronizing Greek art
Answer: (B)
Explanation: The Vishnukundins supported temple architecture and Brahmanical cultural growth in the region.

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Q98. Which of the following best describes Gupta-era land grants?
(A) They were never given to Brahmanas
(B) Copper-plate charters recording tax-free grants (agrahara, brahmadeya) became common
(C) Grants were oral only, with no records
(D) Land grants were always permanent royal holdings and never transferable
Answer: (B)
Explanation: Gupta and post-Gupta rulers issued copper-plate grants documenting land assignments and privileges for Brahmanas and institutions.

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Q99. The notable literary work Harshacharita is a:
(A) Medical treatise
(B) Courtly biography and panegyric of Harsha by Banabhatta
(C) A Buddhist scripture
(D) A Sangam anthology
Answer: (B)
Explanation: Harshacharita (Life of Harsha) by Banabhatta blends biography with poetic panegyric and is a key historical source.

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Q100. One significant long-term consequence of the Gupta–Vakataka and Harsha periods was:
(A) Collapse of urban life across the subcontinent permanently
(B) Consolidation of Sanskritic high culture, temple architecture, and developments in science that shaped medieval Indian civilization
(C) Complete disappearance of Buddhism from India in the 7th century
(D) Immediate political unity of the entire subcontinent under a single ruler
Answer: (B)
Explanation: These periods saw crystallization of Puranic Hinduism, Sanskrit literature, temple-building traditions, and advances in astronomy, medicine and mathematics that influenced later Indian history.

Comprehensive Study Notes for UGC NET / SET / UPSC

I. Rise of Magadha and the First Empire

1. Background

After the 6th century BCE, India witnessed:

• Second urbanization (due to iron technology & agriculture).

• Rise of Mahajanapadas – 16 major states.

• Among them, Magadha rose to dominance due to its strategic and economic advantages.

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2. Causes for Rise of Magadha

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3. Important Dynasties Before Mauryas

(a) Haryanka Dynasty (Bimbisara & Ajatasatru)

• Bimbisara (544–492 BCE):

  • Expanded Magadha through conquest and diplomacy.

  • Married Kosalan princess; annexed Anga.

• Ajatasatru (492–460 BCE):

  • Built fort at Rajagriha.

  • Fought Vaishali (Lichchhavis) – introduced rathamusala (chariot with blades).

(b) Shishunagas

• Shifted capital to Vaishali; ended Avanti’s dominance.

(c) Nandas

• Mahapadma Nanda extended empire up to Punjab and Deccan.

• Maintained huge army: 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, 6,000 elephants.

• Overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya (with Chanakya’s help).

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🟢 II. Greek Invasion and its Impact (327–325 BCE)

• Alexander’s invasion (327 BCE): entered north-west India via Khyber Pass.

• Defeated Porus at the Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum).

• Could not advance beyond Beas due to troop mutiny.

• Established Greek settlements in north-west.

Impact:

1. Opened Indo-Greek contact → trade and cultural exchange.

2. Stimulated political unification – prepared ground for Mauryan Empire.

3. Greek historians (Arrian, Megasthenes) provide important historical accounts.

4. Greek influence on art and coinage (later Gandhara art).

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🟢 III. The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE)

1. Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BCE)

• Founded the first pan-Indian Empire.

• Defeated Nandas with help of Chanakya (Kautilya).

• Defeated Seleucus Nikator (305 BCE) → Treaty of Chandragupta.

• Capital: Pataliputra.

• Appointed Greek ambassador Megasthenes (wrote Indica).

Administration (as per Arthashastra & Indica):

• Highly centralized monarchy.

• Hierarchical bureaucracy: Amatyas (officials), Samaharta (finance), Sannidhata (treasury).

• Standing army with espionage network.

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2. Bindusara (297–273 BCE)

• Expanded empire southward (till Mysore).

• Maintained friendly ties with Syrian king Antiochus I.

• Greek writers call him “Amitrochates” (Destroyer of foes).

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3. Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE)

(a) Conquests and Dhamma

• Won Kalinga War (261 BCE) – massive casualties → adopted Ahimsa and Dhamma (moral law).

• Dhamma = ethical code promoting tolerance, compassion, truthfulness, non-violence.

• Sent missionaries (including his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta) to Sri Lanka and other countries.

(b) Administration

• Divided empire into provinces (Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri).

• Appointed Dhamma-Mahamatras to spread ethical conduct.

(c) Ashokan Edicts

• Language: Prakrit (Brahmi script); in NW India – Greek and Aramaic.

• Major Rock Edicts (14) and Minor Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts.

• Edict XIII describes remorse after Kalinga War.

• Minor Rock Edict I mentions his personal conversion.

(d) Art & Architecture

• Polished stone pillars (Sarnath Lion Capital → National Emblem).

• Stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut.

• Use of rock-cut caves (Barabar Hills).

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4. Decline of Mauryan Empire

Causes:

1. Weak successors after Ashoka (Dasaratha, Samprati).

2. Over-centralization of power.

3. Financial crisis due to vast empire.

4. Regional revolts (Kalinga, north-west).

5. Pushyamitra Shunga’s rebellion (185 BCE).

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🟢 IV. Post-Mauryan Period and Regional Powers (200 BCE – 300 CE)

1. Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks)

• Ruled NW India after Mauryas.

• Menander (Milinda) – converted to Buddhism; dialogue in Milindapanho.

• Introduced portrait coins and Hellenistic art style.

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2. Shungas (185–73 BCE)

• Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga (a Brahmana general).

• Revival of Brahmanism and Vedic rituals (Ashvamedha).

• Patronized art: Bharhut Stupa and additions to Sanchi.

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3. Satavahanas (1st c. BCE – 2nd c. CE)

• Founded by Simuka in Deccan; capital at Pratishthana (Paithan).

• Most famous ruler: Gautamiputra Satakarni.

• Maintained trade with Romans (evident from Roman coins).

• Practised matrilineal elements (mother’s name in inscriptions).

• Language: Prakrit; script: Brahmi.

• Contributed to Amaravati art school.

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4. Kushanas (1st–3rd c. CE)

• Founded by Kujula Kadphises; most famous: Kanishka.

• Empire: from Central Asia to Pataliputra.

• Kanishka’s achievements:

  • Patron of Mahayana Buddhism.

  • Held the Fourth Buddhist Council at Kashmir.

  • Era started in 78 CE (Saka Era).

• Art & Culture:

  • Gandhara School – Greco-Buddhist style.

  • Use of standing Buddha image.

  • Issued gold coins with Greek, Iranian, and Indian deities.

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5. Sakas / Western Kshatrapas (1st c. BCE – 4th c. CE)

• Ruled western India (Gujarat & Malwa).

• Important rulers: Nahapana, Rudradaman I.

• Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman – earliest Sanskrit inscription; records repairs of Sudarshana Lake.

• Promoted trade and port cities like Bharuch (Barygaza).

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6. Kharavela of Kalinga (1st c. BCE)

• Known from Hathigumpha inscription (Udayagiri hills).

• Patron of Jainism.

• Repaired canals and promoted art and music.

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7. Sangam Age (300 BCE – 300 CE)

• Tamilakam (South India) ruled by Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.

• Sangam literature (Tolkappiyam, Ettuthokai, Pattuppattu) provides data on politics, economy, and society.

  • Cheras: traded with Rome via Muziris (Kerala).

  • Cholas: capital Uraiyur, maritime trade.

  • Pandyas: capital Madurai.

Society: Patriarchal; warriors, agriculturists, and bards.
Religion: Worship of Murugan, Korravai, and hero stones (Nadukal).

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8. Trade & Commerce (2nd BCE–3rd CE)

• Inland and maritime trade flourished.

• Ports: Bharuch, Sopara, Arikamedu, Tamralipti, Muziris.

• Roman trade: Gold coins of Augustus, Nero, Trajan found in India.

• Goods exported: Spices, pearls, textiles, ivory.

• Goods imported: Wine, coral, gold, glassware.

• Text: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea details Indo-Roman commerce.

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9. Religious Developments

• Mahayana Buddhism arose under Kanishka: worship of Buddha as god.

• Emergence of image worship, Bodhisattva ideals.

• Bhakti elements began in Hinduism.

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10. Post-Mauryan Art & Architecture

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🟢 V. Gupta–Vakataka Age (4th–6th Century CE)

1. Political History

• Chandragupta I (320–335 CE) – founder; married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.

• Samudragupta (335–375 CE) – “Napoleon of India” (as per Allahabad Pillar Inscription).

• Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya, 375–415 CE) – expanded to western India; patron of Kalidasa.

• Decline under later Guptas due to Huna invasions.

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2. Administration and Society

• Monarchy supported by council of ministers.

• Land grants to Brahmanas and officials (agraharas).

• Varna system became rigid; women’s position declined.

• Growth of Puranic Hinduism (Vishnu, Shiva, Devi cults).

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3. Economy

• Prosperous agrarian base.

• Land grants recorded on copper plates.

• Tax system: bhaga (share of produce), bhoga (royal dues).

• Gupta coins (gold dinars) – finest numismatic art.

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4. Religion & Literature

• Hindu revival: Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti worship.

• Buddhism & Jainism continued with royal tolerance.

• Sanskrit literature:

  • Kalidasa – Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta.

  • Visakhadatta – Mudrarakshasa.

  • Sudraka – Mricchakatika.

  • Amarasimha’s Amarakosha – lexicon.

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5. Science & Technology

• Aryabhata – Astronomy (Aryabhatiya): rotation of earth, pi value.

• Varahamihira – Brihat Samhita (astronomy & astrology).

• Charaka & Sushruta – medicine & surgery.

• Decimal system and concept of zero developed.

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6. Art & Architecture

• Beginning of Hindu temple architecture:

  • Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh) – early Nagara style.

• Ajanta–Ellora caves – Gupta influence.

• Sculptures of Buddha and Hindu deities in exquisite detail.

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🟢 VI. Harsha and His Times (606–647 CE)

1. Political History

• Harshavardhana (606–647 CE) – son of Prabhakaravardhana (Pushyabhuti dynasty).

• Unified north India after fall of Guptas.

• Capital: Kannauj.

• Fought Pulakesin II (Chalukya) – defeated on Narmada.

• Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited his court (book: Si-Yu-Ki).

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2. Administration and Religion

• Followed Gupta administrative model.

• Revenue from agriculture; maintenance of welfare works.

• Initially a Shaiva, later patronized Mahayana Buddhism.

• Built Nalanda Monastery and Kannauj assemblies.

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3. Cultural Achievements

• Patron of literature:

  • Banabhatta – Harshacharita, Kadambari.

  • Mayura, Matanga, Subandhu flourished under him.

• Last great ruler before Islamic invasions.

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🟢 VII. Deccan Powers: Salankayanas & Vishnukundins (4th–6th c. CE)

• Salankayanas:

  • Ruled coastal Andhra (3rd–5th c. CE) after Ikshvakus.

  • Capital: Vengi.

  • Patrons of Vedic Brahmanism and Sanskrit.

• Vishnukundins:

  • Successors of Salankayanas.

  • Extended power to Telangana and Andhra.

  • Promoted Vaishnavism and temple architecture.

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✅ Summary Table: Unit II in a Nutshell