Tag: UNIT – III: Emergence of Regional Kingdoms (c. 600–1200 CE)

(UGC NET History Notes – Early Medieval India)

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🧭 1. Introduction: The Early Medieval Period

Timeframe: 600 CE – 1200 CE
Transitional phase between the decline of Gupta Empire and the rise of Delhi Sultanate.

🔹 Key Features:

• Decline of centralized empires → rise of regional powers.

• Emergence of feudalism – local lords and intermediaries gained power.

• Temple-centered economy and agrarian expansion.

• Development of regional languages, literature, and cultures.

• Integration of tribal areas into the mainstream agrarian society.

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🏞️ 2. Regional Kingdoms of India

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🔶 A. Deccan Kingdoms

1. Gangas of Talakad (Karnataka)

• Ruled: 4th–10th CE

• Capital: Talakad

• Rulers: Durvinita, Avinita

• Notes:

  • Patronized Jainism and Kannada literature.

  • Built the Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola.

  • Practiced land grants and maintained inscriptions in Kannada.

2. Kadambas of Banavasi

• Founder: Mayurasarman

• Period: 4th–6th CE

• Notes:

  • Early native Kannada rulers.

  • Used Kannada and Sanskrit in administration.

  • Example of early Brahmin land grants (Agraharas).

3. Western Chalukyas of Badami

• Period: 6th–8th CE

• Capital: Vatapi (Badami)

• Rulers: Pulakesin I, Pulakesin II, Vikramaditya I

• Notes:

  • Pulakesin II defeated Harshavardhana.

  • Great patrons of art & architecture – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal (UNESCO site).

  • Promoted Vesara style of architecture.

4. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

• Capital: Vengi (Andhra)

• Founder: Vishnuvardhana (brother of Pulakesin II)

• Notes:

  • Ruled coastal Andhra region.

  • Maintained alliances with Cholas through marriage.

  • Promoted Telugu language and culture.

5. Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta

• Period: 8th–10th CE

• Founder: Dantidurga

• Rulers: Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I

• Notes:

  • Built Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora.

  • Patronized Jainism and literature (Kavirajamarga).

  • Ruled extensive areas from Gujarat to Tamil Nadu.

6. Kalyani Chalukyas (Later Chalukyas)

• Period: 10th–12th CE

• Founder: Tailapa II

• Capital: Kalyani (Basavakalyan)

• Notes:

  • Revived Chalukya power after Rashtrakutas.

  • Ruler Vikramaditya VI issued Chalukya Vikrama Era.

  • Encouraged temple building (Vesara style).

7. Kakatiyas of Warangal

• Period: 12th–14th CE

• Rulers: Rudradeva, Ganapatideva, Rani Rudrama Devi

• Notes:

  • Developed irrigation through tanks (Cheruvu system).

  • Encouraged agriculture and trade.

  • Patronized Telugu literature.

8. Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra (Halebid)

• Period: 11th–14th CE

• Rulers: Vishnuvardhana, Ballala II

• Notes:

  • Built Belur and Halebid temples.

  • Promoted Kannada literature and Jainism.

  • Vesara style architecture with intricate carvings.

9. Yadavas of Devagiri

• Period: 9th–14th CE

• Rulers: Bhillama V, Singhana

• Notes:

  • Ruled over Maharashtra.

  • Patronized Marathi and temple art.

  • Defeated by Alauddin Khalji (1296 CE).

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🔶 B. South Indian Kingdoms

1. Pallavas of Kanchipuram

• Period: 6th–9th CE

• Rulers: Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I

• Notes:

  • Built Mahabalipuram shore temples & Kailasanatha temple.

  • Promoted Sanskrit and Tamil literature.

  • Frequent conflicts with Chalukyas.

2. Ceras (Cheras) of Kerala

• Capital: Vanji (Karur)

• Notes:

  • Controlled western coast & spice trade.

  • Engaged in maritime trade with Arabs and Romans.

  • Kulasekhara dynasty revived Chera power in 9th CE.

3. Cholas of Thanjavur

• Period: 9th–13th CE

• Rulers: Vijayalaya, Rajaraja I, Rajendra I

• Notes:

  • Strongest South Indian empire.

  • Rajaraja I built Brihadeshwara temple (Thanjavur).

  • Rajendra I conquered Sri Lanka & Southeast Asia.

  • Developed navy, efficient administration, and temple economy.

4. Pandyas of Madurai

• Capital: Madurai

• Notes:

  • Patronized Tamil Sangam literature.

  • Promoted trade and temples.

  • Later subjugated by Delhi Sultanate (14th CE).

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🔶 C. Eastern Indian Kingdoms

1. Palas of Bengal & Bihar

• Period: 8th–12th CE

• Founders: Gopala, Dharmapala, Devapala

• Notes:

  • Patrons of Buddhism.

  • Founded Nalanda, Vikramashila, and Odantapuri universities.

  • Trade links with Tibet and Southeast Asia.

2. Senas of Bengal

• Period: 11th–13th CE

• Rulers: Ballalasena, Lakshmanasena

• Notes:

  • Revived Brahmanical Hinduism.

  • Lakshmanasena ruled during Bakhtiyar Khalji’s invasion (1203 CE).

3. Varmans of Kamarupa (Assam)

• Ruler: Bhaskaravarman (7th CE)

• Notes:

  • Ally of Harsha; promoted Buddhism & Hinduism.

4. Bhaumakaras and Somavamsis of Odisha

• Notes:

  • Patronized Saivism and Vaisnavism.

  • Built temples at Bhubaneswar and Puri.

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🔶 D. Western Indian Kingdoms

1. Maitrakas of Vallabhi (Gujarat)

• Period: 6th–8th CE

• Notes:

  • Successors of Guptas in western India.

  • Established Vallabhi University, rival to Nalanda.

  • Patronized Buddhism and learning.

2. Chalukyas of Gujarat (Solankis)

• Period: 10th–13th CE

• Rulers: Bhima I, Kumarapala

• Notes:

  • Capital: Anahilapataka (Patan).

  • Built Sun Temple at Modhera.

  • Promoted Jainism and trade.

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🔶 E. Northern Indian Kingdoms

1. Gurjara-Pratiharas

• Period: 8th–11th CE

• Capital: Kannauj

• Rulers: Nagabhata I, Mihira Bhoja

• Notes:

  • Defended north India from Arab invasions.

  • Engaged in Tripartite Struggle with Palas and Rashtrakutas for Kannauj.

2. Kalachuris (Chedis)

• Capital: Tripuri (Jabalpur)

• Rulers: Kokalla I

• Notes:

  • Feudatories of Rashtrakutas; promoted Shaivism.

3. Gahadavalas of Kannauj

• Period: 11th–12th CE

• Rulers: Govindachandra, Jayachandra

• Notes:

  • Controlled Varanasi & eastern U.P.

  • Jayachandra killed in 1194 CE during Ghurid invasion.

4. Paramaras of Malwa

• Capital: Dhar

• Ruler: Bhoja

• Notes:

  • Scholar-ruler; author of Samarangana Sutradhara on architecture.

  • Patron of art, architecture, and Sanskrit learning.

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⚖️ 3. Administration and Kingship

🔹 Political Features:

• Decentralized polity – rise of local chiefs (Samantas).

• Feudal structure – land granted to officials and temples.

• Kingship legitimized through:

  • Religious rituals (Rajasuya, Ashvamedha).

  • Genealogical records.

  • Temple building and land donations.

• Administration divided into Mandala → Vishaya → Grama.

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🌾 4. Agrarian Economy

• Expansion of agriculture due to land grants and irrigation works.

• Emergence of new peasant classes (tenant cultivators).

• Taxes:

  • Bhoga (produce)

  • Kara (land tax)

  • Bali (tribute).

• Irrigation: tanks, wells, canals (esp. under Cholas & Kakatiyas).

• Coins: Gold (dinara), silver, and copper; monetization limited.

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⚓ 5. Trade and Urbanization

• Revival of internal & external trade.

• Ports: Tamralipti, Nagapattinam, Kaveripattinam, Calicut.

• Guilds: Ayyavole 500, Manigramam, Anjuvannam – controlled commerce.

• Trade with Arabs, China, and Southeast Asia (Srivijaya, Java).

• Urban centers: temple towns, craft centers, and ports.

• Growth of merchant guilds with semi-autonomous powers.

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🛕 6. Religion and Temple Culture

• Dominant faiths: Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

• Temple architecture styles:

  • Nagara (North India) – e.g., Khajuraho.

  • Dravida (South India) – e.g., Brihadeshwara.

  • Vesara (Deccan) – e.g., Pattadakal.

• Philosophical schools:

  • Shankara – Advaita (Monism).

  • Ramanuja – Vishishtadvaita.

  • Madhava – Dvaita.

• Tamil Bhakti movement:

  • Nayanars (Shaivites) & Alvars (Vaishnavites).

  • Stressed personal devotion over ritualism.

• Temples served as religious, social, and economic centers.

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👩‍👩‍👧 7. Society

• Varna and Jati: Expansion of castes based on occupation.

• Tribal assimilation: Tribes became peasants or warriors.

• Position of women:

  • Patriarchal structure.

  • Limited property rights.

  • Instances of powerful queens (Rudrama Devi).

• Untouchability: Became rigid.

• Marriage: Patriarchal, arranged, and dowry-based.

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🎓 8. Education and Cultural Developments

• Centers of learning:

  • Agraharas – Brahmin educational settlements.

  • Mathas – monasteries for Vedic study.

  • Mahaviharas – Buddhist universities (Nalanda, Vikramashila).

• Languages:

  • Sanskrit continued as elite language.

  • Regional languages like Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Bengali, Marathi flourished.

• Literature:

  • Emergence of Bhakti poetry, devotional songs, and inscriptions.

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🧩 9. Debates on State Formation

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🕌 10. Arab Contacts and Islamic Invasions

• Arab merchants traded with India since ancient times (Malabar & Sindh).

• Suleiman (Arab traveller, 9th c.) described Indian ports and prosperity.

• Mahmud of Ghazni (1000–1027 CE):

  • Invaded India 17 times.

  • Raided temples (esp. Somnath).

• Alberuni (Al-Biruni):

  • Wrote Tahqiq-i-Hind (Kitab al-Hind).

  • Described Indian sciences, religion, and culture objectively.

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🪔 11. Summary (Key Points to Remember)

• Period of regional kingdoms and cultural florescence.

• Rise of feudalism and temple economy.

• Expansion of agriculture, trade, and urbanization.

• Spread of Brahminical religions and Bhakti movement.

• Growth of regional identities and languages.

• Theoretical debates on state formation: feudal, segmentary, and integrative models.

Regional Kingdoms of India

🔶 A. Deccan Kingdoms

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🔶 B. South Indian Kingdoms

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🔶 C. Eastern Indian Kingdoms

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🔶 D. Western Indian Kingdoms

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🔶 E. Northern Indian Kingdoms