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  • UGC NET History UNIT-5 ADMINISTRATION & ECONOMY (1200–1750 CE) MCQs

    🏛️ SECTION A – Administration under the Delhi Sultanate (1–20)

    1. The nature of the Delhi Sultanate state was mainly —
      (A) Theocratic (B) Theocentric (C) Secular (D) Republican
      Answer: (B) Theocentric
      Explanation: The Sultan ruled as the “Shadow of God” (Zil-i-Ilahi), guided by religion but not ruled by clergy.

    2. Who described himself as Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God)?
      (A) Alauddin Khalji (B) Balban (C) Iltutmish (D) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
      Answer: (B) Balban
      Explanation: Balban emphasized divine kingship and strict court discipline.

    3. The head of the military department under the Delhi Sultanate was —
      (A) Wazir (B) Ariz-i-Mamalik (C) Qazi-ul-Quzat (D) Diwan-i-Riyasat
      Answer: (B) Ariz-i-Mamalik
      Explanation: The Diwan-i-Arz supervised the army and maintained records of soldiers.

    4. Who was in charge of correspondence and royal orders?
      (A) Diwan-i-Insha (B) Diwan-i-Arz (C) Diwan-i-Rasalat (D) Qazi
      Answer: (A) Diwan-i-Insha
      Explanation: Managed royal letters and official documents.

    5. Diwan-i-Wizarat dealt with —
      (A) Religious affairs (B) Military organization (C) Finance and revenue (D) Justice
      Answer: (C) Finance and revenue
      Explanation: The Wazir supervised revenue and expenditure.

    6. The head of religious and charitable affairs was —
      (A) Sadr-us-Sudur (B) Qazi (C) Ariz (D) Wazir
      Answer: (A) Sadr-us-Sudur
      Explanation: Controlled grants, endowments, and implementation of Sharia.

    7. Who among the following first organized the Iqta system?
      (A) Iltutmish (B) Balban (C) Alauddin Khalji (D) Firoz Shah
      Answer: (A) Iltutmish
      Explanation: Granted lands (Iqta) to nobles in lieu of salary and service.

    8. Under the Iqta system, the holder of an Iqta was called —
      (A) Amil (B) Muqti (C) Mansabdar (D) Jagirdar
      Answer: (B) Muqti
      Explanation: Muqti collected taxes and maintained law in the province.

    9. Who was the first Sultan to separate military and civil functions of the Iqta?
      (A) Balban (B) Alauddin Khalji (C) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (D) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
      Answer: (B) Alauddin Khalji
      Explanation: He curbed nobles’ power by separating administrative functions.

    10. Law of succession during the Delhi Sultanate was —
      (A) Strictly hereditary (B) By election (C) By nomination and military approval (D) Decided by clergy
      Answer: (C) By nomination and military approval
      Explanation: Sultan’s successor was chosen by nobles or army, not strictly hereditary.

    11. The local officer responsible for village revenue was —
      (A) Patwari (B) Muqaddam (C) Amil (D) Qanungo
      Answer: (A) Patwari
      Explanation: Maintained records of land and revenue at village level.

    12. The officer in charge of law and order in towns was —
      (A) Kotwal (B) Qazi (C) Amil (D) Muqti
      Answer: (A) Kotwal
      Explanation: Maintained policing, market supervision, and public order.

    13. The Sultan who appointed spies (Barids) to supervise officers was —
      (A) Iltutmish (B) Balban (C) Alauddin Khalji (D) Firoz Shah
      Answer: (B) Balban
      Explanation: Created an intelligence network to curb rebellion.

    14. The provincial governor under the Delhi Sultanate was called —
      (A) Subahdar (B) Muqti (C) Mansabdar (D) Zamindar
      Answer: (B) Muqti
      Explanation: Combined administrative and military powers at provincial level.

    15. The Sultanate’s judicial system was based on —
      (A) Hindu Dharmashastra (B) Sharia law (C) British law (D) Customary law only
      Answer: (B) Sharia law
      Explanation: Islamic law interpreted by Qazis governed justice.

    16. Which Sultan introduced the price control and market system?
      (A) Alauddin Khalji (B) Muhammad bin Tughlaq (C) Balban (D) Iltutmish
      Answer: (A) Alauddin Khalji
      Explanation: Regulated prices of essential goods and wages.

    17. The Sultanate’s official language was —
      (A) Arabic (B) Persian (C) Hindi (D) Urdu
      Answer: (B) Persian
      Explanation: Used for administration, record-keeping, and court culture.

    18. Who introduced the post of Amir-i-Kohi (supervisor of agriculture)?
      (A) Alauddin Khalji (B) Muhammad bin Tughlaq (C) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (D) Balban
      Answer: (B) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
      Explanation: Appointed to improve agriculture and irrigation.

    19. Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s main contribution was —
      (A) Abolition of taxes (B) Establishment of canals and welfare works (C) New currency (D) Market regulation
      Answer: (B) Establishment of canals and welfare works
      Explanation: Built canals for irrigation and promoted public works.

    20. Which Sultan established hereditary nobility?
      (A) Balban (B) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (C) Alauddin Khalji (D) Iltutmish
      Answer: (B) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
      Explanation: Made offices hereditary, weakening central control.

    ⚖️ SECTION B – Sher Shah & Mughal Administration (21–50)

    1. Sher Shah’s empire was divided into —
      (A) Iqtas (B) Sarkars (C) Subahs (D) Jagirs
      Answer: (B) Sarkars
      Explanation: Sarkar → Pargana → Village hierarchy used for administration.

    2. Who introduced the silver ‘Rupiya’?
      (A) Babur (B) Sher Shah Suri (C) Akbar (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (B) Sher Shah Suri
      Explanation: The standard silver coin became basis of later Indian currency.

    3. Sher Shah’s land revenue system was based on —
      (A) Measurement of land (B) Crop yield guess (C) Past revenue records (D) Military needs
      Answer: (A) Measurement of land
      Explanation: Measured fields and classified soil fertility.

    4. The emperor who first introduced ‘Chehra’ and ‘Dagh’ system for soldiers was —
      (A) Alauddin Khalji (B) Sher Shah (C) Akbar (D) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
      Answer: (A) Alauddin Khalji
      Explanation: ‘Chehra’ (descriptive rolls), ‘Dagh’ (horse branding) ensured discipline.

    5. Akbar introduced which administrative system?
      (A) Mansabdari (B) Iqta (C) Feudal (D) Zamindari
      Answer: (A) Mansabdari
      Explanation: Nobles ranked by Zat and Sawar.

    6. The revenue system devised by Todar Mal was called —
      (A) Zabti (B) Dahsala (C) Batai (D) Kankut
      Answer: (B) Dahsala
      Explanation: Based on 10-year average of yields.

    7. The Mughal emperor who promoted religious tolerance through Sulh-i-Kul —
      (A) Akbar (B) Jahangir (C) Shah Jahan (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (A) Akbar
      Explanation: Promoted peace among all faiths.

    8. The military head in Mughal central administration was —
      (A) Mir Bakshi (B) Mir Saman (C) Sadr (D) Wazir
      Answer: (A) Mir Bakshi
      Explanation: Managed mansabdars and army records.

    9. The department of finance under Mughals was called —
      (A) Diwan-i-Wizarat (B) Diwan-i-Arz (C) Diwan-i-Insha (D) Diwan-i-Riyasat
      Answer: (A) Diwan-i-Wizarat
      Explanation: Headed by Wazir; supervised revenue and expenditure.

    10. Jagirdar’s main duty was —
      (A) Tax collection (B) Law making (C) Trade (D) Justice
      Answer: (A) Tax collection
      Explanation: Collected revenue from jagir (assigned land).

    11. Which Mughal system led to later financial crisis?
      (A) Mansabdari (B) Jagirdari (C) Ryotwari (D) Zamindari
      Answer: (B) Jagirdari
      Explanation: Excess mansabdars led to jagir shortage in 17th century.

    12. Akbar’s ‘Zabt’ system was applicable in —
      (A) All India (B) Core fertile areas (C) Deccan (D) Bengal only
      Answer: (B) Core fertile areas
      Explanation: Applied where regular surveys were possible.

    13. The governor of a Mughal province was called —
      (A) Subahdar (B) Nazim (C) Tarafdar (D) Muqti
      Answer: (A) Subahdar
      Explanation: Controlled provincial administration and military.

    14. Provincial administration under Mughals had —
      (A) Subah → Sarkar → Pargana → Village (B) Iqta → Fief → Village (C) Circle → Subah (D) Janapada → Gram
      Answer: (A) Subah → Sarkar → Pargana → Village.

    15. Akbar’s revenue minister was —
      (A) Raja Todar Mal (B) Man Singh (C) Birbal (D) Abul Fazl
      Answer: (A) Raja Todar Mal.

    16. Under Mughals, Jagirdars were transferred —
      (A) Every 3 years (B) Every year (C) Once in 12 years (D) Fixed for life
      Answer: (A) Every 3 years
      Explanation: Rotation prevented feudal independence.

    17. Mir Saman in Mughal court was responsible for —
      (A) Household and stores (B) Finance (C) Military (D) Justice
      Answer: (A) Household and stores
      Explanation: Managed royal household, karkhanas, and gifts.

    18. The Qazi-ul-Quzat was —
      (A) Chief judge (B) Military head (C) Tax collector (D) Religious teacher
      Answer: (A) Chief judge
      Explanation: Supervised Qazis in provinces.

    19. During whose reign did the Mansabdari system get over-expanded and decline?
      (A) Akbar (B) Jahangir (C) Shah Jahan (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (D) Aurangzeb
      Explanation: Too many mansabdars, not enough jagirs.

    20. The Mughal emperor who introduced the Ilahi era —
      (A) Akbar (B) Humayun (C) Shah Jahan (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (A) Akbar
      Explanation: Started in 1582 CE with Din-i-Ilahi.

    21. The Mughal central administration was mainly —
      (A) Feudal (B) Bureaucratic and centralized (C) Democratic (D) Federal
      Answer: (B) Bureaucratic and centralized.

    22. ‘Karkhana’ during the Mughal period referred to —
      (A) Military camps (B) Royal workshops (C) Agricultural farms (D) Market yards
      Answer: (B) Royal workshops.

    23. Who was known for maintaining a register of revenue and expenditure called ‘Dastur-ul-Amal’?
      (A) Todar Mal (B) Abul Fazl (C) Aurangzeb (D) Jahangir
      Answer: (A) Todar Mal.

    24. Akbar divided his empire into —
      (A) 12 Subahs (B) 15 Subahs (C) 17 Subahs (D) 20 Subahs
      Answer: (A) 12 Subahs initially.

    25. Under the Mughals, Batai system meant —
      (A) Crop-share assessment (B) Cash assessment (C) Land tax (D) Military levy
      Answer: (A) Crop-share assessment.

    26. Who introduced the post of Mir Bahr (Port Officer)?
      (A) Sher Shah (B) Akbar (C) Aurangzeb (D) Jahangir
      Answer: (A) Sher Shah
      Explanation: Controlled ports and maritime trade.

    27. Faujdars were responsible for —
      (A) Law and order (B) Education (C) Trade (D) Religion
      Answer: (A) Law and order.

    28. ‘Zamindars’ under Mughals were —
      (A) Hereditary intermediaries (B) Government officials only (C) Tenants (D) Peasants
      Answer: (A) Hereditary intermediaries.

    29. Main difference between Mansabdari and Jagirdari —
      (A) Mansab = Rank, Jagir = Land assignment (B) Both same (C) Mansab hereditary (D) Jagir was cash salary
      Answer: (A) Mansab = Rank, Jagir = Land assignment.

    30. Under Sher Shah, the chief judicial officer was —
      (A) Qazi-ul-Quzat (B) Wazir (C) Sadr (D) Diwan
      Answer: (A) Qazi-ul-Quzat.

    🏯 SECTION C – Deccan & Maratha Administration (51–70)

    1. The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded by —
      (A) Krishnadeva Raya (B) Harihara and Bukka (C) Narasimha Deva (D) Deva Raya II
      Answer: (B) Harihara and Bukka
      Explanation: They founded the empire in 1336 CE under the Sangama dynasty.

    1. The capital of Vijayanagara Empire was —
      (A) Bidar (B) Hampi (C) Golconda (D) Warangal
      Answer: (B) Hampi
      Explanation: Hampi, on the Tungabhadra river, became a major cultural and economic hub.

    1. Vijayanagara Empire was divided into —
      (A) Provinces called Rajyas (B) Provinces called Nadus (C) Iqtas (D) Mandalas
      Answer: (B) Provinces called Nadus
      Explanation: Administrative divisions were Rajya → Nadu → Sthala → Grama.

    1. The king of Vijayanagara was assisted by —
      (A) Ashta Pradhan (B) Council of ministers (C) Subedars (D) Nawabs
      Answer: (B) Council of ministers
      Explanation: The king was supreme, assisted by a council handling different departments.

    1. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to which dynasty?
      (A) Sangama (B) Saluva (C) Tuluva (D) Aravidu
      Answer: (C) Tuluva
      Explanation: The most famous ruler of the Tuluva dynasty; his reign (1509–1529) was the empire’s golden age.

    1. The Vijayanagara revenue system was based on —
      (A) Share of produce (B) Land measurement (C) Cash assessment (D) Military collection
      Answer: (A) Share of produce
      Explanation: The state generally took 1/6th of the produce as tax.

    1. The Bahmani Sultanate was founded by —
      (A) Alauddin Hasan Gangu (B) Mahmud Gawan (C) Yusuf Adil Shah (D) Quli Qutb Shah
      Answer: (A) Alauddin Hasan Gangu
      Explanation: He established the Bahmani kingdom in 1347 CE with capital at Gulbarga.

    1. The capital of Bahmani kingdom was later shifted from Gulbarga to —
      (A) Bidar (B) Bijapur (C) Berar (D) Golkonda
      Answer: (A) Bidar
      Explanation: Later rulers made Bidar the capital for administrative convenience.

    1. Mahmud Gawan was famous for —
      (A) Religious reforms (B) Military conquests (C) Administrative and educational reforms (D) Maritime trade
      Answer: (C) Administrative and educational reforms
      Explanation: As prime minister, he reorganized provinces and established a madrasa in Bidar.

    1. The Bahmani administrative head was called —
      (A) Peshwa (B) Wazir (C) Amil (D) Mir Bakshi
      Answer: (B) Wazir
      Explanation: The Wazir or Peshwa headed finance and civil administration.

    1. Provincial heads under the Bahmani kingdom were known as —
      (A) Tarafdars (B) Mansabdars (C) Muqtis (D) Jagirdars
      Answer: (A) Tarafdars
      Explanation: They governed Tarafs (provinces) and collected revenues.

    1. Which system of administration did the Bahmani rulers adopt from the Delhi Sultanate?
      (A) Iqta system (B) Zamindari (C) Ryotwari (D) Mansabdari
      Answer: (A) Iqta system
      Explanation: Adopted from the northern model for land revenue.

    1. Shivaji’s council of eight ministers was called —
      (A) Ashta Pradhan (B) Sabha (C) Panchayat (D) Durbar
      Answer: (A) Ashta Pradhan
      Explanation: Council formed the core of Maratha administration.

    1. The Peshwa in Shivaji’s administration functioned as —
      (A) Commander (B) Chief Minister (C) Priest (D) Treasurer
      Answer: (B) Chief Minister
      Explanation: The Peshwa was the head of civil administration and chief adviser.

    1. The officer in charge of intelligence and record-keeping in Shivaji’s council was —
      (A) Amatya (B) Mantri (C) Sachiv (D) Sumant
      Answer: (B) Mantri
      Explanation: The Mantri handled intelligence, espionage, and state records.

    1. Who was the finance minister in Shivaji’s council?
      (A) Amatya (B) Panditrao (C) Senapati (D) Nyayadhish
      Answer: (A) Amatya
      Explanation: The Amatya managed accounts, audit, and treasury.

    1. The foreign affairs of Maratha state were managed by —
      (A) Sumant / Dabir (B) Nyayadhish (C) Senapati (D) Sachiv
      Answer: (A) Sumant / Dabir
      Explanation: Handled correspondence and diplomacy with other states.

    1. In Shivaji’s administration, the head of the army was known as —
      (A) Peshwa (B) Senapati (C) Amatya (D) Kotwal
      Answer: (B) Senapati
      Explanation: Commanded military operations and defense.

    1. The Maratha administrative structure was —
      (A) Decentralized with local self-government (B) Centralized monarchy (C) Clerical (D) Military dictatorship
      Answer: (A) Decentralized with local self-government
      Explanation: Strong local officers (Deshmukh, Patil, Kulkarni) functioned efficiently.

    1. The highest civil and religious authority in Maratha administration was —
      (A) Panditrao (B) Nyayadhish (C) Peshwa (D) Chhatrapati
      Answer: (A) Panditrao
      Explanation: The Panditrao oversaw religious charities and ensured moral conduct.

    🌾 SECTION D – Agrarian Structure & Rural Economy (71–85)

    1. The main source of state revenue during the Sultanate and Mughal periods was —
      (A) Customs (B) Land revenue (C) Jizya (D) Trade tax
      Answer: (B) Land revenue
      Explanation: Constituted nearly two-thirds of total income.

    1. The person responsible for village record-keeping was —
      (A) Muqaddam (B) Patwari (C) Zamindar (D) Amil
      Answer: (B) Patwari
      Explanation: Maintained village-level revenue and cultivation data.

    1. The term Kankut refers to —
      (A) Measurement of land by crop estimation (B) Irrigation technique (C) Coin minting (D) Military practice
      Answer: (A) Measurement of land by crop estimation
      Explanation: Used to estimate yield for revenue.

    1. ‘Batai’ method of revenue assessment was based on —
      (A) Division of produce between state and peasant (B) Land fertility only (C) Military strength (D) Rent per area
      Answer: (A) Division of produce between state and peasant
      Explanation: The produce was physically divided after harvest.

    1. The canal irrigation system was first developed extensively by —
      (A) Alauddin Khalji (B) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (C) Sher Shah (D) Akbar
      Answer: (B) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
      Explanation: Built canals from Yamuna, Ghaggar, and Sutlej rivers.

    1. Loans given to peasants during famines or crop failures were called —
      (A) Zakat (B) Taccavi (C) Khiraj (D) Ushr
      Answer: (B) Taccavi
      Explanation: State advanced loans for seeds and cultivation.

    1. Under Mughals, the land revenue was generally —
      (A) 1/2 of produce (B) 1/3 of produce (C) 1/6 of produce (D) Fixed rent
      Answer: (B) 1/3 of produce
      Explanation: This was the standard state share.

    1. Peasants under Mughal rule were known as —
      (A) Raiyat (B) Zamindars (C) Jagirdars (D) Karkun
      Answer: (A) Raiyat
      Explanation: They cultivated land and paid revenue.

    1. The peasant revolts in Mughal period were mostly caused by —
      (A) Over-taxation and exploitation (B) Religious conversion (C) Military recruitment (D) Foreign invasions
      Answer: (A) Over-taxation and exploitation.

    1. Which emperor encouraged agricultural expansion in Bengal by reclaiming forests?
      (A) Akbar (B) Jahangir (C) Shah Jahan (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (C) Shah Jahan
      Explanation: Expansion into Bengal delta increased productivity.

    1. Irrigation tanks and wells were characteristic of —
      (A) Northern India (B) Deccan and South India (C) Punjab only (D) Bengal only
      Answer: (B) Deccan and South India
      Explanation: Due to rainfall variation, tanks and reservoirs were vital.

    1. Famine relief was a duty of —
      (A) Zamindar (B) Local officials (C) Emperor only (D) Merchants
      Answer: (A) Zamindar
      Explanation: They distributed food and taccavi loans locally.

    1. Village headmen in Mughal India were known as —
      (A) Muqaddam (B) Patwari (C) Jagirdar (D) Subahdar
      Answer: (A) Muqaddam
      Explanation: Represented peasants and helped in revenue collection.

    1. Agricultural productivity was highest in —
      (A) Deccan (B) Doab region (C) Punjab hills (D) Bengal forests
      Answer: (B) Doab region
      Explanation: Fertile area between Ganga and Yamuna rivers.

    1. Frequent famines occurred due to —
      (A) Poor rainfall and wars (B) High literacy (C) Religious conflicts (D) Land surplus
      Answer: (A) Poor rainfall and wars.

    💰 SECTION E – Industry, Trade, and Finance (86–100)

    1. Major textile centre during Mughal India —
      (A) Delhi (B) Surat (C) Lucknow (D) Ajmer
      Answer: (B) Surat
      Explanation: Key port and textile hub for domestic and overseas trade.

    1. The famous cotton textile city ‘Dacca’ was known for —
      (A) Woolen cloth (B) Muslin (C) Brocade (D) Silk
      Answer: (B) Muslin
      Explanation: Fine muslin of Bengal was world-famous.

    1. Royal factories or workshops were known as —
      (A) Karkhanas (B) Mandis (C) Hattas (D) Qasbahs
      Answer: (A) Karkhanas
      Explanation: Produced textiles, arms, jewelry, furniture for the court.

    1. Main foreign traders in India during Akbar’s time —
      (A) British (B) Portuguese (C) French (D) Dutch
      Answer: (B) Portuguese
      Explanation: They dominated maritime trade in the 16th century.

    1. English East India Company established its first factory at —
      (A) Madras (B) Surat (C) Calcutta (D) Bombay
      Answer: (B) Surat
      Explanation: In 1613 CE with permission from Jahangir.

    1. The Indian term ‘Hundi’ refers to —
      (A) Land deed (B) Bill of exchange (C) Tax receipt (D) Royal grant
      Answer: (B) Bill of exchange
      Explanation: Used by merchants for secure money transfer.

    1. Insurance of goods in medieval India was known as —
      (A) Bima (B) Nankar (C) Chauth (D) Rahdari
      Answer: (A) Bima
      Explanation: Traders insured their merchandise against loss or piracy.

    1. Main export commodities during Mughal period —
      (A) Spices, textiles, indigo, saltpetre (B) Gold, silk, silver (C) Machinery (D) Wool
      Answer: (A) Spices, textiles, indigo, saltpetre.

    1. Important port of Bengal during Mughal period —
      (A) Hooghly (B) Calicut (C) Cochin (D) Masulipatnam
      Answer: (A) Hooghly
      Explanation: Major trading port under Portuguese and later Mughals.

    1. Grand Trunk Road was reconstructed by —
      (A) Akbar (B) Sher Shah Suri (C) Aurangzeb (D) Jahangir
      Answer: (B) Sher Shah Suri
      Explanation: Connected Sonargaon to Peshawar for trade and movement.

    1. The major source of Mughal revenue was —
      (A) Trade duties (B) Land revenue (C) Tribute (D) Mines
      Answer: (B) Land revenue.

    1. Mughal currency of copper coin was called —
      (A) Dam (B) Rupiya (C) Mohur (D) Tankha
      Answer: (A) Dam
      Explanation: Smaller denomination of the rupee.

    1. Gold coin under the Mughals was called —
      (A) Mohur (B) Ashrafi (C) Dam (D) Dinar
      Answer: (A) Mohur
      Explanation: 1 Mohur ≈ 15 silver rupees.

    1. Mint towns during Mughal rule included —
      (A) Delhi, Lahore, Surat, Ahmedabad (B) Kabul, Kashmir, Goa, Lucknow (C) Only Delhi (D) Multan and Patna only
      Answer: (A) Delhi, Lahore, Surat, Ahmedabad
      Explanation: Important centres for coin minting and trade.

    1. A major cause of peasant revolts under Aurangzeb was —
      (A) Religious persecution (B) Excessive taxation and jagirdar oppression (C) European trade (D) Weak local governance
      Answer: (B) Excessive taxation and jagirdar oppression
      Explanation: Heavy revenue demand and corruption led to Jat, Satnami, and Sikh uprisings.

  • UGC NET History Unit-5 Administration and Economy (1200–1750 CE)

    (Delhi Sultanate → Mughals → Deccan → Marathas → Economy & Trade)

    🏛️ 1. Administration under the Delhi Sultanate

    🔹 Nature of the State

    • The Sultanate was a theo-centric monarchy, meaning the Sultan was considered the shadow of God (Zil-i-Ilahi).

    • Not purely theocratic — religious laws (Sharia) were applied, but practical politics often overrode religious control.

    • The Sultan was the head of state, army, and justice.

    🔹 Central Administration

    Office Head Function
    Sultan – Supreme authority; head of military, judiciary, and administration.
    Naib-i-Mulk (Naib Sultan) Deputy Sultan

    Assisted or replaced Sultan in absence.
    Wazir (Diwan-i-Wizarat)

    Finance minister

    		 Controlled revenue and expenditure.
    Diwan-i-Arz

    Ariz-i-Mamalik

    		 Head of military organization.
    Diwan-i-Insha Dabir Managed royal correspondence.
    Diwan-i-Rasalat

    Sadr-us-Sudur

    		 Head of religious and charitable matters.
    Qazi-ul-Quzat

    Chief Qazi

    		 Head of judiciary, enforced Sharia law.

    🔹 Provincial and Local Administration

    • Empire divided into Iqtas (provinces) under Iqtedars.

    • Subah → Shiq → Pargana → Village hierarchy.

    • Local officers:

      • Amil (revenue officer)

      • Muqaddam (village headman)

      • Patwari (record keeper)

    🔹 Law of Succession

    • No fixed rule; not hereditary.

    • Sultan chosen by nobility or military elites (e.g., Chahalgani in early period).

    • Led to frequent disputes and palace intrigues.

    ⚖️ 2. Sher Shah Suri’s Administrative Reforms (1540–1545)

    Sher Shah re-established efficient governance after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

    🔹 Key Reforms

    Field Reform
    Revenue Land measured and classified based on fertility. Introduced zabt system and Patta(ownership deed).
    Currency

    Introduced Rupiya (silver coin) and standardized coinage.
    Military

    Maintained regular army, horse branding (dagh), and descriptive rolls (chehra).
    Roads and Communication

    Built Grand Trunk Road (Sonargaon to Peshawar), planted trees, built sarais.
    Justice

    Equal law for all; strict control on officials.
    Administration

    Empire divided into Sarkars → Parganas → Villages.

    Legacy: His system became the model for Akbar’s administration.

    👑 3. Mughal Administration (Central, Provincial, Local)

    🔹 Nature of the Mughal State

    • Highly centralized monarchy, yet flexible and inclusive.

    • Emperor seen as Padshah (absolute sovereign).

    • Religious policy varied: Akbar’s Sulh-i-Kul vs Aurangzeb’s orthodoxy.

    🔹 Central Administration

    Department Head Function
    Emperor – Supreme authority; source of all power.
    Wazir / Diwan-i-Ala

    Finance minister; later called Diwan of Empire.
    Mir Bakshi

    Military head; managed mansabdars and salaries.
    Mir Saman

    Head of royal household and stores.
    Sadr-us-Sudur

    Head of religious charities and endowments.
    Qazi-ul-Quzat Chief justice.

    🔹 Provincial Administration

    • Empire divided into Subahs (provinces) → Sarkars → Parganas → Villages.

    • Headed by a Subahdar (governor).

    • Diwan (revenue), Bakshi (military), Qazi (justice), Kotwal (police) assisted him.

    🔹 Mansabdari System

    • Introduced by Akbar.

    • Each noble (Mansabdar) was assigned:

      • Zat (personal rank/salary)

      • Sawar (number of cavalry to maintain).

    • Salary could be in cash or jagir.

    • Ensured central control over the nobility.

    🔹 Jagirdari System

    • Jagir = land assignment for revenue collection instead of salary.

    • Jagirdar collected revenue but could not own land.

    • Rotation of jagirs prevented feudal independence.

    • By 17th century, excessive jagir demands caused economic crisis (Jagir shortage).

    🏯 4. Deccan and South Indian Administration

    🔶 Vijayanagara Empire

    • Kingship was hereditary and divine; assisted by council of ministers.

    • Provinces: Nadu, Sthala, Grama.

    • Revenue based on produce (1/6th).

    • Well-organized army, efficient taxation, and irrigation system.

    • Local self-government continued in villages.

    🔶 Bahmani Kingdom

    • Modeled after Delhi Sultanate.

    • Central officers: Wazir (Peshwa), Amir-i-Jumla, Mir Jumlana, Sadr-i-Jahan.

    • Provincial governors called Tarafdars.

    • Mahmud Gawan reformed revenue and reduced corruption.

    🛡️ 5. Maratha Administration

    🔹 Founder: Shivaji (1627–1680)

    • Established Swaraj; coronated as Chhatrapati at Raigad (1674 CE).

    • Efficient civil-military system and decentralized governance.

    🔹 The Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight Ministers)

    Office Title Function
    1 Peshwa Prime Minister; chief executive.
    2 Amatya Finance and audit.
    3 Sachiv Official correspondence.
    4 Mantri Intelligence and record keeping.
    5 Senapati Commander-in-chief.
    6 Sumant / Dabir Foreign affairs.
    7 Nyayadhish Chief justice.
    8 Panditrao Ecclesiastical head, religious charities.

    Local levels: Deshmukh (district head), Patil (village head), Kulkarni (accountant).

    🌍 6. Frontier and Inter-State Relations

    Delhi Sultanate

    • Adopted policy of military expansion and defense against Mongols (Northwest Frontier).

    • Alauddin and Balban strengthened borders.

    Mughals

    • Controlled frontiers with fortifications, diplomacy, and alliances.

    • Frontier provinces like Kabul, Qandahar, and Bengal managed by strong governors.

    • Deccan policy under Akbar–Aurangzeb led to annexations but drained resources.

    🌾 7. Agrarian Structure and Rural Economy

    Aspect Features
    Land Ownership Ultimate owner: State (Emperor/Sultan). Cultivators had occupancy rights.
    Revenue Assessment

    Zabt, Batai (share of produce), Kankut (measurement method).
    Peasantry

    Backbone of economy; paid taxes and rent.
    Agricultural Loans

    State often advanced seeds/loans during famine (taccavi loans).
    Irrigation

    Canals under Firoz Shah; tanks and wells in Deccan & South.
    Village Society

    Self-sufficient; artisans, peasants, and officials coexisted in panchayat system.

    🏭 8. Industry and Technology

    Major Industries

    • Cotton textiles: Surat, Dhaka, Burhanpur, Masulipatnam.

    • Silk and brocade: Banaras, Murshidabad.

    • Metalwork and weapons: Lahore, Delhi, Jaunpur.

    • Agro-based industries: Sugar, indigo, oil pressing.

    Organization

    • Production by guilds and karkhanas (royal workshops).

    • Technology: Handlooms, spinning wheels, dyeing and block printing.

    💰 9. Trade and Commerce

    Aspect Details
    Internal Trade Active between towns and villages; regulated markets under Khaljis and Mughals.
    External Trade

    Flourished with Arabs, Persians, Portuguese, Dutch, English.
    Ports

    Surat, Cambay, Calicut, Masulipatnam, Nagapattinam, Hooghly.
    European Trade

    Portuguese first (1498), followed by Dutch (1605), English (1608), French (1664).
    Trade Goods

    Textiles, spices, indigo, silk, sugar, saltpetre, precious stones.
    Transport

    Horses, camels, bullock carts; rivers for inland transport; improved roads (GT Road).

    🧾 Financial Instruments

    • Hundi: Indigenous bill of exchange for safe money transfer.

    • Insurance (Bima): Merchants insured goods during transport.

    • Currency: Silver rupiya (Sher Shah); gold mohur and copper dam (Mughals).

    • Mint System: Imperial mints in Delhi, Lahore, Ahmedabad, and Surat.

    📉 State Income & Expenditure

    • Main income: Land revenue (⅔ of total).

    • Other sources: Customs, jizya, war booty, tributes.

    • Expenditure: Army, royal household, public works, charity.

    🌾 Famines and Peasant Revolts

    • Frequent due to crop failure, over-taxation, and wars.

    • Major revolts:

      • Satnami and Jat rebellions (Aurangzeb period).

      • Deccan peasant uprisings (17th century).

    • Famines recorded in Mughal chronicles (1630–32, 1661–62).

    🧭 10. Summary Table

    Theme Delhi Sultanate Mughal Empire Deccan / Maratha
    Nature of State Theo-centric monarchy Centralized empire

    Hereditary kingship (Vijayanagara), Bureaucratic (Marathas)
    Revenue System Iqta system

    Zabt & Jagirdari

    		 Ryotwari & village-based
    Army

    Feudal contingents

    		 Mansabdari cavalry Senapati and infantry
    Economy

    Agrarian-urban blend

    Commercial & urban expansion

    		 Agricultural and artisanal economy
    Trade Inland & Arab trade Global maritime trade Coastal and inland trade
    Currency

    Tankha, Dinar

    		 Rupiya, Mohur, Dam Hons, Pagodas, Tankas

  • UGC NET History Unit-4 Medieval Indian History (1200 – 1750 CE) MCQs

    🏛️ SECTION A – Sources of Medieval Indian History (1 – 15)

    1. Archaeology helps historians mainly to study –
      (A) Political events (B) Material culture (C) Language changes (D) Religious beliefs
      Answer: (B) Material culture
      Explanation: Excavations reveal artefacts, tools, monuments, pottery – the basis of material life.

    2. The Qutub Minar was begun by –
      (A) Iltutmish (B) Qutb-ud-din Aibak (C) Balban (D) Alauddin Khalji
      Answer: (B) Qutb-ud-din Aibak
      Explanation: Aibak started it; Iltutmish completed most parts.

    3. Epigraphy means –
      (A) Study of coins (B) Study of inscriptions (C) Study of languages (D) Study of texts
      Answer: (B) Study of inscriptions
      Explanation: Inscriptions record land grants, royal orders, and religious dedications.

    4. Numismatics is the study of –
      (A) Coins (B) Weights (C) Arms (D) Jewellery
      Answer: (A) Coins
      Explanation: Coins reveal economic, political, and religious details.

    5. The token currency experiment was introduced by –
      (A) Alauddin Khalji (B) Muhammad bin Tughlaq (C) Sher Shah Suri (D) Akbar
      Answer: (B) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
      Explanation: He issued copper coins equal in value to silver—later withdrawn.

    6. The term Daftar Khanna refers to –
      (A) Royal archives (B) Court musicians (C) Treasury (D) Market office
      Answer: (A) Royal archives
      Explanation: It stored official records, firmans and akhbarat (newsletters).

    7. ‘Firman’ means –
      (A) Royal edict (B) Tax record (C) Village pact (D) Revenue book
      Answer: (A) Royal edict
      Explanation: Issued by Sultans or Mughal emperors granting rights or orders.

    8. ‘Akhbarat’ in Mughal records were –
      (A) News letters and reports (B) Revenue accounts (C) Judicial orders (D) Poems
      Answer: (A) News letters and reports
      Explanation: They conveyed daily intelligence from provinces to the emperor.

    9. The historian of Alauddin Khalji was –
      (A) Zia-ud-Din Barani (B) Minhaj-us-Siraj (C) Ibn Battuta (D) Abul Fazl
      Answer: (A) Zia-ud-Din Barani
      Explanation: Author of Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi and Fatwa-i-Jahandari.

    10. ‘Ain-i-Akbari’ is written by –
      (A) Abul Fazl (B) Badaoni (C) Barani (D) Ibn Battuta
      Answer: (A) Abul Fazl
      Explanation: It describes Akbar’s administration and culture.

    11. The earliest Persian chronicle of the Delhi Sultanate is –
      (A) Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (B) Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi (C) Ain-i-Akbari (D) Fatwa-i-Jahandari
      Answer: (A) Tabaqat-i-Nasiri
      Explanation: Written by Minhaj-us-Siraj during Iltutmish’s reign.

    12. The famous traveller who visited Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s court –
      (A) Marco Polo (B) Ibn Battuta (C) Niccolò Conti (D) Bernier
      Answer: (B) Ibn Battuta
      Explanation: His Rihla provides firsthand account of India (1333-1342).

    13. Abdur Razzaq visited which empire?
      (A) Mughal (B) Bahmani (C) Vijayanagara (D) Maratha
      Answer: (C) Vijayanagara
      Explanation: He visited Deva Raya II’s court in 1440 CE.

    14. ‘Bakhar’ literature is associated with –
      (A) Marathi histories (B) Persian epics (C) Tamil poetry (D) Buddhist texts
      Answer: (A) Marathi histories
      Explanation: Bakhars record Maratha events in regional prose.

    15. Coins of Sher Shah Suri introduced the –
      (A) Rupiya system (B) Copper token (C) Silver Dinar (D) Double tankha
      Answer: (A) Rupiya system
      Explanation: His silver rupiya became the model for later Indian currency.

    ⚔️ SECTION B – Delhi Sultanate (16–40)

    1. The Delhi Sultanate was founded by –
      (A) Qutb-ud-din Aibak (B) Iltutmish (C) Balban (D) Alauddin Khalji
      Answer: (A) Qutb-ud-din Aibak
      Explanation: After Muhammad Ghori’s death (1206 CE), his slave Aibak declared independence and founded the Slave (Mamluk) dynasty.

    1. Razia Sultan was the daughter of –
      (A) Balban (B) Iltutmish (C) Alauddin (D) Qutb-ud-din
      Answer: (B) Iltutmish
      Explanation: She ruled from 1236 to 1240 CE — India’s first and only woman Sultan.

    1. Balban adopted the title –
      (A) Ghazi (B) Sultan-ul-Adil (C) Zil-i-Ilahi (D) Amir-ul-Umara
      Answer: (C) Zil-i-Ilahi
      Explanation: Meaning “Shadow of God,” to strengthen the divine aspect of kingship.

    1. Alauddin Khalji’s most famous economic measure was –
      (A) Abolition of taxes (B) Market control (C) Land redistribution (D) Currency reform
      Answer: (B) Market control
      Explanation: He fixed prices and set up markets under a controller (Diwan-i-Riyasat).

    1. Who led Alauddin Khalji’s southern campaigns?
      (A) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (B) Malik Kafur (C) Balban (D) Firoz Shah
      Answer: (B) Malik Kafur
      Explanation: Malik Kafur conquered the Deccan kingdoms and brought immense wealth.

    1. Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was –
      (A) Ghiyasuddin (B) Muhammad bin Tughlaq (C) Firoz Shah (D) Mubarak Shah
      Answer: (A) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
      Explanation: Established rule in 1320 CE after defeating Khusro Khan.

    1. Muhammad bin Tughlaq transferred his capital from Delhi to –
      (A) Lahore (B) Agra (C) Daulatabad (D) Gulbarga
      Answer: (C) Daulatabad
      Explanation: Attempted to control both north and south India; the experiment failed.

    1. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s copper token currency failed because –
      (A) People rejected it (B) Massive forgery (C) High inflation (D) Religious reasons
      Answer: (B) Massive forgery
      Explanation: Unauthorized minting made copper coins worthless.

    1. Firoz Shah Tughlaq is remembered for –
      (A) Conquest of Deccan (B) Religious persecution (C) Canal irrigation (D) Navy organization
      Answer: (C) Canal irrigation
      Explanation: Built canals from the Yamuna and Ghaggar rivers for agriculture.

    1. The Sayyid dynasty was founded by –
      (A) Khizr Khan (B) Bahlul Lodi (C) Mahmud Tughlaq (D) Mubarak Shah
      Answer: (A) Khizr Khan
      Explanation: He ruled Delhi in the name of Timur’s successors (1414 CE).

    1. The Lodi dynasty was established by –
      (A) Sikandar Lodi (B) Ibrahim Lodi (C) Bahlul Lodi (D) Daulat Khan
      Answer: (C) Bahlul Lodi
      Explanation: Afghan origin dynasty; ruled 1451–1526 CE.

    1. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in –
      (A) Battle of Khanwa (B) First Battle of Panipat (C) Battle of Talikota (D) Battle of Plassey
      Answer: (B) First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE)
      Explanation: Ended the Delhi Sultanate; began Mughal rule.

    1. ‘Chahalgani’ refers to –
      (A) Forty Turkish nobles (B) Revenue officials (C) Military posts (D) Village officers
      Answer: (A) Forty Turkish nobles
      Explanation: Council formed by Iltutmish to assist the Sultan.

    1. Which Sultan repelled Mongol invasions successfully?
      (A) Alauddin Khalji (B) Balban (C) Ghiyasuddin (D) Firoz Shah
      Answer: (A) Alauddin Khalji
      Explanation: Defeated repeated Mongol attacks under Qutlugh Khwaja.

    1. The builder of Hauz Khas and Firoz Shah Kotla was –
      (A) Balban (B) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (C) Ghiyasuddin (D) Iltutmish
      Answer: (B) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
      Explanation: Developed new city Firozabad and promoted architecture.

    1. Timur invaded India during the reign of –
      (A) Alauddin Khalji (B) Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Tughlaq (C) Sikandar Lodi (D) Khizr Khan
      Answer: (B) Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Tughlaq
      Explanation: In 1398 CE, Timur plundered Delhi and left devastation.

    1. The Lodis were of –
      (A) Turkish (B) Afghan (C) Persian (D) Arab origin
      Answer: (B) Afghan
      Explanation: They represented Afghan tribal aristocracy in Delhi politics.

    1. Which Lodi ruler founded Agra?
      (A) Bahlul Lodi (B) Ibrahim Lodi (C) Sikandar Lodi (D) Khizr Khan
      Answer: (C) Sikandar Lodi
      Explanation: Established Agra as second capital in 1504 CE.

    1. The Slave dynasty was also called –
      (A) Mamluk dynasty (B) Afghan dynasty (C) Khalji dynasty (D) Syrian dynasty
      Answer: (A) Mamluk dynasty
      Explanation: From Arabic “Mamluk,” meaning slave-soldier.

    1. Who completed construction of Qutub Minar?
      (A) Qutb-ud-din Aibak (B) Iltutmish (C) Balban (D) Alauddin Khalji
      Answer: (B) Iltutmish
      Explanation: He completed the tower begun by Aibak.

    1. The Delhi Sultanate ended with –
      (A) Timur’s invasion (B) Ibrahim Lodi’s defeat (C) Firoz Shah’s death (D) Sayyid decline
      Answer: (B) Ibrahim Lodi’s defeat by Babur (1526 CE).

    1. The Sultanate’s official language was –
      (A) Sanskrit (B) Arabic (C) Persian (D) Urdu
      Answer: (C) Persian
      Explanation: Persian became the court and administrative language.

    1. Who introduced hereditary nobility in Delhi Sultanate?
      (A) Balban (B) Iltutmish (C) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (D) Alauddin
      Answer: (C) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
      Explanation: He made offices hereditary, weakening central power.

    1. Which Sultan patronized historian Zia-ud-Din Barani?
      (A) Alauddin Khalji (B) Muhammad bin Tughlaq (C) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (D) Sikandar Lodi
      Answer: (C) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
      Explanation: Barani wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi under his patronage.

    1. Main reason for Sultanate’s decline –
      (A) Hindu resistance (B) Mongol attack (C) Weak successors and Babur’s invasion (D) Economic crisis
      Answer: (C) Weak successors and Babur’s invasion (1526 CE).

    👑 SECTION C – The Mughal Empire (41–70)

    1. The Mughal Empire was founded by –
      (A) Humayun (B) Babur (C) Sher Shah (D) Akbar
      Answer: (B) Babur
      Explanation: Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in 1526 CE.

    1. Babur’s memoirs are known as –
      (A) Humayun-nama (B) Babur-nama (C) Akbar-nama (D) Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
      Answer: (B) Babur-nama
      Explanation: Autobiography written in Turkish (Chagatai).

    1. Humayun was defeated by –
      (A) Sher Shah Suri (B) Akbar (C) Rana Sanga (D) Bahadur Shah
      Answer: (A) Sher Shah Suri
      Explanation: Lost at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540).

    1. Sher Shah’s most important administrative reform –
      (A) Token currency (B) Land revenue system (C) Religious policy (D) Slave abolition
      Answer: (B) Land revenue system
      Explanation: Introduced zabt and measured lands on the basis of fertility.

    1. Sher Shah introduced –
      (A) Rupiya (silver coin) (B) Ilahi coin (C) Tankha (D) Dirham
      Answer: (A) Rupiya
      Explanation: Standardized silver coin used later by Mughals and British.

    1. Akbar became ruler at age –
      (A) 12 (B) 13 (C) 16 (D) 18
      Answer: (B) 13
      Explanation: Ascended after Humayun’s death (1556 CE).

    1. Second Battle of Panipat (1556) was fought between –
      (A) Akbar vs Hemu (B) Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi (C) Sher Shah vs Humayun (D) Aurangzeb vs Dara
      Answer: (A) Akbar vs Hemu
      Explanation: Akbar’s general Bairam Khan defeated Hemu.

    1. Akbar’s revenue minister –
      (A) Birbal (B) Todar Mal (C) Man Singh (D) Tansen
      Answer: (B) Todar Mal
      Explanation: Devised Dahsala system—land measured, average yield fixed.

    1. Mansabdari system determined –
      (A) Land revenue (B) Rank and salary of nobles (C) Judicial authority (D) Trade duties
      Answer: (B) Rank and salary of nobles
      Explanation: Each noble was assigned a mansab (rank).

    1. Din-i-Ilahi was started by –
      (A) Akbar (B) Aurangzeb (C) Shah Jahan (D) Humayun
      Answer: (A) Akbar
      Explanation: Syncretic faith promoting tolerance (1582 CE).

    1. Akbar’s biography Akbarnama was written by –
      (A) Abul Fazl (B) Badayuni (C) Barani (D) Abdur Rahim
      Answer: (A) Abul Fazl
      Explanation: Also compiled the Ain-i-Akbari.

    1. Jahangir was famous for –
      (A) Architecture (B) Justice and painting (C) Wars (D) Rebellion
      Answer: (B) Justice and painting
      Explanation: Established “Chain of Justice”; Mughal art flourished.

    1. The English got permission to trade at Surat from –
      (A) Akbar (B) Jahangir (C) Shah Jahan (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (B) Jahangir
      Explanation: Granted to Captain Hawkins (1613 CE).

    1. Shah Jahan’s reign is known as –
      (A) Golden Age of Architecture (B) Conquest period (C) Reformation period (D) Decline
      Answer: (A) Golden Age of Architecture
      Explanation: Built Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid.

    1. Taj Mahal was built in memory of –
      (A) Noor Jahan (B) Mumtaz Mahal (C) Jodha Bai (D) Gulbadan Begum
      Answer: (B) Mumtaz Mahal
      Explanation: Completed in 1653 CE.

    1. Aurangzeb re-imposed Jizya in –
      (A) 1669 CE (B) 1679 CE (C) 1686 CE (D) 1700 CE
      Answer: (B) 1679 CE
      Explanation: Reversal of Akbar’s tolerant policy.

    1. Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaigns led to –
      (A) Expansion and overstrain (B) Industrial growth (C) Peace treaties (D) British alliance
      Answer: (A) Expansion and overstrain
      Explanation: Drained treasury, caused Mughal decline.

    1. Battle of Samugarh (1658) fought between –
      (A) Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb (B) Akbar and Hemu (C) Humayun and Sher Shah (D) Baji Rao and Nizam
      Answer: (A) Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb
      Explanation: Aurangzeb defeated his brother during war of succession.

    1. Jizya tax was first abolished by –
      (A) Akbar (B) Sher Shah (C) Aurangzeb (D) Humayun
      Answer: (A) Akbar
      Explanation: Abolished in 1564 CE to promote harmony.

    1. Fatehpur Sikri was founded by –
      (A) Akbar (B) Sher Shah (C) Aurangzeb (D) Babur
      Answer: (A) Akbar
      Explanation: Built near Agra as his new capital.

    1. The Buland Darwaza commemorates –
      (A) Akbar’s victory over Gujarat (B) Aurangzeb’s war (C) Shah Jahan’s coronation (D) Babur’s conquest
      Answer: (A) Akbar’s victory over Gujarat.

    1. Mughal painting reached its height under –
      (A) Akbar (B) Jahangir (C) Shah Jahan (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (B) Jahangir
      Explanation: Naturalism and portrait painting peaked.

    1. Official language of Mughal Empire –
      (A) Hindi (B) Arabic (C) Persian (D) Urdu
      Answer: (C) Persian.

    1. The Red Fort in Delhi was built by –
      (A) Akbar (B) Shah Jahan (C) Aurangzeb (D) Sher Shah
      Answer: (B) Shah Jahan.

    1. Aurangzeb died in –
      (A) 1707 CE (B) 1699 CE (C) 1715 CE (D) 1720 CE
      Answer: (A) 1707 CE
      Explanation: Died at Ahmednagar; empire soon declined.

    1. The Mughal Empire reached its largest extent under –
      (A) Akbar (B) Shah Jahan (C) Aurangzeb (D) Humayun
      Answer: (C) Aurangzeb.

    2. Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-Kul meant —
      (A) Universal peace and tolerance (B) Heavy taxation (C) Forced conversion (D) Military conscription
      Answer: (A) Universal peace and tolerance
      Explanation: Sulh-i-Kul promoted religious tolerance and equal treatment of all subjects.

    3. Raja Todar Mal is best known for —
      (A) Military reforms (B) Revenue settlement (Dahsala) (C) Building Fatehpur Sikri (D) Introducing Jizya
      Answer: (B) Revenue settlement (Dahsala)
      Explanation: Todar Mal standardized land measurement and revenue assessment under Akbar.

    4. The Mansabdari rank determined a noble’s —
      (A) Land ownership only (B) Military and civil rank and salary (C) Religious status (D) Right to mint coins
      Answer: (B) Military and civil rank and salary
      Explanation: Mansabs fixed number of troops to be maintained and corresponding salary.

    5. Which Mughal emperor granted trading privileges to the English East India Company?
      (A) Akbar (B) Jahangir (C) Shah Jahan (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (B) Jahangir
      Explanation: Jahangir allowed English traders to operate from Surat in 1613.

    6. Which Mughal ruler is associated with the construction of the Taj Mahal?
      (A) Akbar (B) Jahangir (C) Shah Jahan (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (C) Shah Jahan
      Explanation: Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal (completed c.1653) as a mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal.

    7. The Mughal architectural style reached its peak under —
      (A) Humayun (B) Jahangir (C) Shah Jahan (D) Aurangzeb
      Answer: (C) Shah Jahan
      Explanation: Monumental architecture (Taj, Red Fort) flourished under Shah Jahan.

    8. Aurangzeb’s reimposition of Jizya was primarily —
      (A) An economic tax reform (B) A signal of orthodox policy (C) Introduced by Akbar (D) For financing the navy
      Answer: (B) A signal of orthodox policy
      Explanation: Reintroduced in 1679 to reflect Aurangzeb’s orthodox Islamic stance.

    9. Which foreign invader sacked Delhi in 1739 and looted the Peacock Throne?
      (A) Ahmad Shah Abdali (B) Nadir Shah (C) Timur (D) Tamerlane
      Answer: (B) Nadir Shah
      Explanation: Persian ruler Nadir Shah defeated Muhammad Shah and plundered Delhi.

    10. Ahmad Shah Abdali is best known in Indian history for —
      (A) Founding Hyderabad (B) Leading Third Battle of Panipat (1761) (C) Patronizing the arts (D) Establishing the Maratha confederacy
      Answer: (B) Leading Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
      Explanation: Abdali defeated the Marathas at Panipat, a major turning point.

    11. Which Mughal emperor attempted administrative reconciliation after Aurangzeb’s death?
      (A) Bahadur Shah I (B) Farrukhsiyar (C) Muhammad Shah (D) Alamgir II
      Answer: (A) Bahadur Shah I
      Explanation: Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712) sought to stabilize the empire post-Aurangzeb.

    12. One major reason for Mughal decline in the 18th century was —
      (A) Strong centralized bureaucracy (B) Court factionalism and rise of provincial powers (C) Technological superiority over Europeans (D) Population decline only
      Answer: (B) Court factionalism and rise of provincial powers
      Explanation: Nobles and provincial governors became independent, weakening central control.

    13. Which province became practically independent under Nawabs after Mughal decline?
      (A) Gujarat (B) Bengal (C) Punjab (D) Rajasthan
      Answer: (B) Bengal
      Explanation: Bengal became semi-autonomous under powerful Nawabs like Murshid Quli Khan.

    14. The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by —
      (A) Harihara and Bukka (B) Krishnadeva Raya and Achyuta Raya (C) Deva Raya I and II (D) Saluva Narasimha only
      Answer: (A) Harihara and Bukka
      Explanation: Sangama brothers established Vijayanagara c.1336 with support of Vidyaranya.

    15. The capital city of Vijayanagara was —
      (A) Hampi (B) Bidar (C) Gulbarga (D) Bijapur
      Answer: (A) Hampi
      Explanation: Hampi (on the Tungabhadra) was the spectacular capital and cultural center.

    16. Krishnadeva Raya is associated with which literary work?
      (A) Rajatarangini (B) Amuktamalyada (C) Ramcharitmanas (D) Akbarnama
      Answer: (B) Amuktamalyada
      Explanation: Telugu epic attributed to Krishnadeva Raya, who patronized literature and arts.

    17. The Battle of Talikota (1565) resulted in —
      (A) Victory of Vijayanagara over Bahmani sultanates (B) Defeat of Vijayanagara and its decline (C) Establishment of Mughal rule in Deccan (D) Alliance between Vijayanagara and Portuguese
      Answer: (B) Defeat of Vijayanagara and its decline
      Explanation: Deccan Sultanates allied to defeat Vijayanagara, leading to its collapse.

    18. The Bahmani Sultanate later fragmented into —
      (A) Five Deccan Sultanates (B) Eight Rajput States (C) Two Sultanates only (D) Mughal provinces
      Answer: (A) Five Deccan Sultanates
      Explanation: Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar emerged from Bahmani disintegration.

    19. Mahmud Gawan is best known as —
      (A) Founder of Bijapur (B) A Bahmani vizier and reformer (C) A Maratha general (D) A Mughal poet
      Answer: (B) A Bahmani vizier and reformer
      Explanation: Mahmud Gawan instituted revenue and military reforms in Bahmani administration.

    20. Which Deccan Sultanate controlled Golconda and prospered from diamond trade?
      (A) Bijapur (B) Golkonda (Qutb Shahi) (C) Ahmadnagar (D) Bidar
      Answer: (B) Golkonda (Qutb Shahi)
      Explanation: Golkonda region famed for diamond mines and prosperous trade.

    21. The Eastern Gangas are best associated with —
      (A) Construction of Jagannath Temple at Puri (B) Founding of Vijayanagara (C) Establishing Lodi dynasty (D) Shipbuilding in Gujarat
      Answer: (A) Construction of Jagannath Temple at Puri
      Explanation: The Eastern Ganga dynasty (Odisha) patronized the Jagannath cult and temples.

    22. The Suryavamshi Gajapatis ruled primarily in —
      (A) Bengal (B) Odisha (C) Gujarat (D) Malwa
      Answer: (B) Odisha
      Explanation: Powerful 15th-century dynasty resisting Bahmani and Gajapati rivals.

    23. Shivaji’s coronation and formal assertion of Swaraj took place in —
      (A) Raigad (1674) (B) Pune (1670) (C) Satara (1650) (D) Surat (1665)
      Answer: (A) Raigad (1674)
      Explanation: Shivaji crowned himself Chhatrapati at Raigad fort in 1674.

    24. Shivaji’s council of ministers was called —
      (A) Ashta Pradhan (B) Chauth Council (C) Peshwa Sabha (D) Durbar-i-Aam
      Answer: (A) Ashta Pradhan
      Explanation: Eight ministers handling different departments (finance, military, justice, etc.).

    25. Who was Shivaji’s famous naval commander?
      (A) Kanhoji Angre (B) Kanhoji Dhond (C) Kanhoji Patil (D) Kanhoji Bhosle
      Answer: (A) Kanhoji Angre
      Explanation: Renowned Maratha admiral who defended Konkan coasts in the early 18th century.

    26. The first Peshwa who made the post hereditary and strengthened Maratha administration was —
      (A) Balaji Vishwanath (B) Baji Rao I (C) Nana Phadnavis (D) Raghunath Rao
      Answer: (A) Balaji Vishwanath
      Explanation: He consolidated Peshwa power and set the foundation for later expansion.

    27. Baji Rao I is noted for —
      (A) Naval conquests (B) Efficient cavalry and northern expansion (C) Building Taj Mahal (D) Signing Treaty of Surat
      Answer: (B) Efficient cavalry and northern expansion
      Explanation: Baji Rao I (1720s–40s) led rapid Maratha expansion into north India.

    28. Maratha Confederacy included which of the following powerful houses?
      (A) Scindias, Holkars, Gaikwads, Bhonsles (B) Mughals, Safavids, Ottomans (C) Solankis, Paramaras, Kalachuris (D) Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras
      Answer: (A) Scindias, Holkars, Gaikwads, Bhonsles
      Explanation: These chiefs ruled semi-independently under nominal Peshwa authority.

    29. The Maratha defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was against —
      (A) Nadir Shah (B) Ahmad Shah Abdali (C) British East India Company (D) Mughal forces
      Answer: (B) Ahmad Shah Abdali
      Explanation: Abdali (Durrani) defeated the Marathas, halting their northward dominance.

    30. A major cause of Maratha decline in the late 18th century was —
      (A) Unity among chiefs (B) Internal factionalism and overstretch (C) Epidemic diseases only (D) Complete economic collapse
      Answer: (B) Internal factionalism and overstretch
      Explanation: Rivalries among Maratha houses and resource strains weakened them.

    31. Which treaty marked the beginning of British political influence over Marathas?
      (A) Treaty of Salbai (1782) (B) Treaty of Bassein (1802) (C) Treaty of Purandar (1665) (D) Treaty of Surat (1775)
      Answer: (B) Treaty of Bassein (1802)
      Explanation: Signed by Peshwa Baji Rao II with the British, leading to greater British intervention.

    32. Which administrative innovation is attributed to Sher Shah Suri?
      (A) Mansabdari (B) Provincial nawabs (C) Grand Trunk Road and improved postal system (D) Din-i-Ilahi
      Answer: (C) Grand Trunk Road and improved postal system
      Explanation: Sher Shah improved communications and state infrastructure.

    33. Which of the following was a significant consequence of Nadir Shah’s invasion (1739)?
      (A) Strengthening of Mughal treasury (B) Looting of Delhi and weakening of Mughal prestige (C) Rise of Maratha Empire immediately (D) Establishment of Persian rule in India
      Answer: (B) Looting of Delhi and weakening of Mughal prestige
      Explanation: The sacking severely undermined Mughal authority and morale.

    34. The term ‘Daulat’ in Mughal administrative parlance usually referred to —
      (A) Revenue only (B) State treasury and royal grandeur (C) Village council (D) Military camp
      Answer: (B) State treasury and royal grandeur
      Explanation: ‘Daulat’ connoted wealth, royal power, and state resources.

    35. Which factor most decisively enabled the rise of regional powers (e.g., Marathas, Nizams, Nawabs) after the Mughal collapse?
      (A) Continued strong central bureaucracy (B) Weakening of central authority and rise of powerful provincial governors (C) Isolation from world trade (D) Immediate European conquest of entire subcontinent
      Answer: (B) Weakening of central authority and rise of powerful provincial governors
      Explanation: As central Mughal control eroded, local rulers consolidated autonomy and formed new states.

  • UGC NET History Unit–4 MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY (1200 – 1750 CE)

    (UGC NET History Notes – Simple and Comprehensive Version)

    🏛️ 1. Sources of Medieval Indian History

    Understanding history between 1200–1750 CE depends on a wide range of sources — archaeological, epigraphic, literary, and foreign accounts.

    📜 A. Archaeological Sources

    • Excavations and Monuments: Forts, mosques, temples, tombs, palaces (e.g., Qutub Minar, Red Fort, Gol Gumbaz).

    • Material evidence: Pottery, weapons, coins, inscriptions, and architecture provide details of economy and culture.

    • Examples:

      • Qutub Minar and Tughlaqabad (Delhi Sultanate)

      • Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri (Mughal period)

      • Vijayanagara ruins at Hampi (Deccan)

    🪶 B. Epigraphic Sources (Inscriptions)

    • Provide official orders, grants, and records of rulers.

    • Languages: Persian (mainly after 1200 CE), Sanskrit, and regional scripts.

    • Examples:

      • Inscriptions from Delhi Sultanate mosques

      • Land grants and farmans of Mughal rulers

    💰 C. Numismatic Sources (Coins)

    • Reveal information about rulers, economy, religion, and trade.

    • Sultans and Mughals issued coins with Persian inscriptions and rulers’ titles.

    • Examples:

      • Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s token currency (copper/silver)

      • Akbar’s Ilahi coins (Din-i-Ilahi period)

      • Sher Shah’s Rupiya (precursor of modern rupee)

    📚 D. Literary Sources

    (i) Persian Chronicles

    • Official court histories written by nobles and historians.

    • Examples:

      • Tabaqat-i Nasiri – Minhaj-us-Siraj (Slave dynasty)

      • Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi – Ziauddin Barani (Tughlaq period)

      • Ain-i-Akbari, Akbarnama – Abul Fazl (Akbar’s reign)

      • Badshahnama – Abdul Hamid Lahori (Shah Jahan)

    (ii) Sanskrit and Regional Texts

    • Chronicled local kingdoms and religious life.

    • Examples:

      • Rajatarangini (Kashmir)

      • Kirtivilas (Bengal)

      • Bakhar literature (Marathi records of Maratha period)

    (iii) Daftar Khannas and State Records

    • Daftar Khanna – archives of royal administration.

    • Firmans – royal decrees.

    • Akhbarat – court news bulletins and intelligence reports.

    • Bahis / Pothis – account books and registers maintained by local officials.

    (iv) Foreign Travellers’ Accounts

    • Offer external perspectives on Indian society and rule.

    • Important travellers:

      • Ibn Battuta (Morocco) – during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign

      • Marco Polo – visited South India during Pandya rule

      • Abdur Razzaq – visited Vijayanagara court (Deva Raya II)

      • Niccolò Manucci, François Bernier, Tavernier – Mughal India

      • Al-Biruni – though earlier, described early medieval India

    ⚔️ 2. Political Developments: The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE)

    🔶 (A) Ghorid Invasions

    • Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE).

    • Laid foundation for Muslim rule in North India.

    • His general Qutbuddin Aibak became the first Sultan of Delhi.

    🔶 (B) Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate

    Dynasty Period Important Rulers Key Features
    Slave (Mamluk) 1206–1290 Qutbuddin Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia, Balban Foundation of Delhi Sultanate; construction of Qutub Minar; Turkish nobility (Chahalgani).
    Khalji 1290–1320 Alauddin Khalji Market control, price regulation, conquest of Deccan, defended against Mongols.
    Tughlaq 1320–1414 Ghiyasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firoz Shah Experiments in currency, shifting capital to Daulatabad, canal building, patron of learning.
    Sayyid 1414–1451 Khizr Khan, Mubarak Shah Nominal rulers under Timur’s successors.
    Lodi 1451–1526 Bahlul, Sikandar, Ibrahim Lodi Afghan dynasty; centralized power; defeated by Babur in First Battle of Panipat (1526).

    ⚰️ Decline of the Delhi Sultanate

    • Weak successors and internal conflicts.

    • Rise of regional states (Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa, Deccan).

    • Invasions by Timur (1398 CE) and Babur (1526 CE).

    👑 3. Foundation and Expansion of the Mughal Empire (1526–1707 CE)

    🔹 Babur (1526–1530)

    • Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at First Battle of Panipat (1526).

    • Defeated Rana Sanga (Battle of Khanwa, 1527) and Medini Rai (Chanderi, 1528).

    • Introduced gunpowder warfare in India.

    🔹 Humayun (1530–1556)

    • Defeated by Sher Shah Suri; regained throne with Persian help before his death (1556).

    🔹 The Sur Interregnum (1540–1555)

    • Sher Shah Suri:

      • Introduced Rupiya and efficient land revenue system (Zabt).

      • Built Grand Trunk Road (GT Road) and improved postal system.

    🔹 Akbar (1556–1605)

    • Consolidated empire; Second Battle of Panipat (1556).

    • Administrative reforms: Mansabdari system, revenue reforms (Todar Mal).

    • Religious policy: Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace), Din-i-Ilahi.

    • Expanded empire from Kabul to Bengal and Deccan.

    🔹 Jahangir (1605–1627)

    • Known for justice and art patronage.

    • Married Nur Jahan, who played a major political role.

    • Relations with English and Portuguese traders began.

    🔹 Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

    • Golden age of Mughal architecture: Taj Mahal, Red Fort.

    • Expansion of empire in the Deccan.

    • Ended by war of succession among his sons.

    🔹 Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

    • Empire reached maximum territorial extent.

    • Imposed Jizya, reimposed orthodox Islamic laws.

    • Faced revolts (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Rajputs).

    • His policies weakened the empire.

    ⚰️ 4. Decline and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire

    Causes:

    • Weak Later Mughals (after Aurangzeb).

    • Court factionalism and nobility corruption.

    • Provincial independence – Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh.

    • Foreign invasions – Nadir Shah (1739), Ahmad Shah Abdali (1761).

    • Rise of Marathas, Sikhs, and British influence.

    🏯 5. Southern India: Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdoms

    🔶 Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1565)

    • Founded by Harihara and Bukka (Sangama dynasty) under guidance of Vidyaranya.

    • Capital: Hampi.

    • Four dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu.

    • Famous rulers:

      • Krishnadeva Raya (Tuluva dynasty) – golden age of Telugu literature and architecture.

    • Defeated by Deccan Sultanates in Battle of Talikota (1565).

    🔶 Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1527)

    • Founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah.

    • Capital: Gulbarga, later Bidar.

    • Notable rulers:

      • Mahmud Gawan – Persian administrator, reformed revenue and army.

    • Disintegrated into five Deccan Sultanates:

      • Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar.

    ⚒️ Eastern Kingdoms

    • Eastern Gangas (Odisha): Built Jagannath Temple at Puri.

    • Suryavamshi Gajapatis: Powerful in 15th century; resisted Bengal and Bahmani invasions.

    ⚔️ 6. Rise of the Marathas

    🔹 Shivaji (1627–1680)

    • Founder of Maratha Swaraj.

    • Crowned as Chhatrapati (1674).

    • Established efficient administration – Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight Ministers).

    • Built strong forts and navy.

    🔹 Expansion under the Peshwas

    • Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao I, Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) extended Maratha power across India.

    • Baji Rao I – most successful general, established Maratha supremacy in North India.

    🔹 Maratha–Mughal Relations

    • Continuous conflict from Aurangzeb’s reign to the 18th century.

    • Marathas later became the main power after Mughal decline.

    🔹 Maratha Confederacy

    • Semi-independent states under chiefs like Gaikwads, Holkars, Scindias, and Bhonsles.

    ⚰️ Decline of Maratha Power

    • Internal disunity and regionalism among Maratha chiefs.

    • Defeat in Third Battle of Panipat (1761) by Ahmad Shah Abdali.

    • Rise of British East India Company thereafter.

    🧭 7. Summary: Key Themes of Unit IV

    Theme Key Points
    Sources Archaeology, Epigraphy, Coins, Persian Chronicles, Regional Literature, Foreign Accounts
    Delhi Sultanate Five dynasties (1206–1526), centralized military monarchy, cultural synthesis
    Mughals From Babur to Aurangzeb; administrative innovations, cultural peak under Akbar–Shah Jahan
    Deccan States Vijayanagara & Bahmanis; later divided into five Sultanates
    Marathas Shivaji’s foundation of Swaraj; expansion under Peshwas; decline after Panipat
    Themes State formation, integration, regionalization, religious synthesis, and imperial decline

  • UGC NET History Unit-3 Emergence of Regional Kingdoms (600–1200 CE) MCQs

    SECTION A – Deccan Kingdoms (1 – 20)

    1. The founder of the Kadamba dynasty of Banavasi was –
      (A) Pulakesin I (B) Mayurasarman (C) Dantidurga (D) Tailapa II
      Answer: (B) Mayurasarman
      Explanation: Mayurasarman founded the Kadamba dynasty in the 4th century CE, one of the earliest Kannada dynasties.

    2. The capital of the Western Chalukyas of Badami was –
      (A) Kalyani (B) Vatapi (C) Banavasi (D) Pattadakal
      Answer: (B) Vatapi
      Explanation: Vatapi (modern Badami) was the capital of the Chalukyas, famous for rock-cut temples at Aihole and Pattadakal.

    3. Pulakesin II defeated –
      (A) Harshavardhana (B) Rajendra Chola (C) Mahmud of Ghazni (D) Dharmapala
      Answer: (A) Harshavardhana
      Explanation: Pulakesin II’s Aihole inscription records his victory over Harsha near the Narmada River.

    4. The founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was –
      (A) Krishna I (B) Amoghavarsha I (C) Dantidurga (D) Govinda III
      Answer: (C) Dantidurga
      Explanation: Dantidurga defeated the Chalukyas and founded Rashtrakuta rule in the Deccan.

    5. The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora was built by –
      (A) Amoghavarsha I (B) Krishna I (C) Narasimhavarman II (D) Rajaraja I
      Answer: (B) Krishna I
      Explanation: Krishna I constructed the magnificent rock-cut Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.

    6. The famous Kakatiya queen who ruled Warangal was –
      (A) Rudrama Devi (B) Rani Durgavati (C) Rani Lakshmi Bai (D) Rani Chennamma
      Answer: (A) Rudrama Devi
      Explanation: Rudrama Devi (13th century) ruled Warangal and promoted irrigation and administration.

    7. The Hoysala temples at Belur and Halebid represent the –
      (A) Dravida (B) Vesara (C) Nagara (D) Indo-Islamic style
      Answer: (B) Vesara
      Explanation: Hoysala temples are fine examples of Vesara (mixed) style of architecture.

    8. ‘Kavirajamarga’ was written during the reign of –
      (A) Krishna I (B) Amoghavarsha I (C) Dantidurga (D) Govinda III
      Answer: (B) Amoghavarsha I
      Explanation: It is the earliest work in Kannada literature written during Amoghavarsha’s rule.

    9. The capital of the Kalyani Chalukyas was –
      (A) Badami (B) Kalyani (C) Aihole (D) Vengi
      Answer: (B) Kalyani
      Explanation: Kalyani (Basavakalyan) was their capital in the 10th–12th centuries.

    10. The founder of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri was –
      (A) Bhillama V (B) Singhana (C) Dantidurga (D) Pulakesin II
      Answer: (A) Bhillama V
      Explanation: Bhillama V established the Yadava kingdom at Devagiri (Daulatabad).

    11. Govinda III assumed the title –
      (A) Prithvivallabha (B) Vikramaditya (C) Maharajadhiraja (D) Chakravartin
      Answer: (A) Prithvivallabha
      Explanation: Govinda III expanded Rashtrakuta power and took this title after northern conquests.

    12. The Later Chalukyas are also known as –
      (A) Kalyani Chalukyas (B) Solankis (C) Eastern Chalukyas (D) Kalachuris
      Answer: (A) Kalyani Chalukyas
      Explanation: They were named after their capital Kalyani.

    13. The Rashtrakuta inscriptions were mostly in –
      (A) Kannada (B) Sanskrit (C) Prakrit (D) Tamil
      Answer: (A) Kannada
      Explanation: Kannada was the official and literary language of the Rashtrakutas.

    14. The Hoysalas were originally feudatories of –
      (A) Cholas (B) Rashtrakutas (C) Western Chalukyas (D) Pallavas
      Answer: (C) Western Chalukyas
      Explanation: They served the Chalukyas before rising to independence.

    15. Rani Rudrama Devi ruled the kingdom of –
      (A) Kakatiyas (B) Hoysalas (C) Pallavas (D) Yadavas
      Answer: (A) Kakatiyas
      Explanation: She ruled the Kakatiya dynasty from Warangal.

    16. The greatest Hoysala ruler who defeated the Cholas was –
      (A) Ballala II (B) Vishnuvardhana (C) Bhillama V (D) Tailapa II
      Answer: (B) Vishnuvardhana
      Explanation: Vishnuvardhana expanded the Hoysala kingdom and built temples at Belur and Halebid.

    17. The Eastern Chalukyas ruled which region?
      (A) Andhra (B) Karnataka (C) Tamil Nadu (D) Kerala
      Answer: (A) Andhra
      Explanation: Their capital was Vengi in Andhra Pradesh.

    18. The Vesara style of architecture developed mainly under –
      (A) Cholas (B) Rashtrakutas (C) Hoysalas (D) Pallavas
      Answer: (C) Hoysalas
      Explanation: Vesara, a blend of Nagara and Dravida, was perfected by Hoysalas.

    19. The Kakatiya king famous for irrigation development was –
      (A) Rudradeva (B) Ganapatideva (C) Bhaskaravarman (D) Tailapa II
      Answer: (B) Ganapatideva
      Explanation: He built large tanks for irrigation in Telangana.

    20. The Yadava dynasty was defeated by –
      (A) Rajaraja Chola (B) Harsha (C) Alauddin Khalji (D) Mahmud of Ghazni
      Answer: (C) Alauddin Khalji
      Explanation: Alauddin Khalji captured Devagiri in 1296 CE, ending Yadava rule.

    🌴 SECTION B – South Indian Kingdoms (21 – 40)

    1. The founder of the Chola dynasty was –
      (A) Vijayalaya (B) Rajaraja I (C) Rajendra I (D) Karikala
      Answer: (A) Vijayalaya
      Explanation: Vijayalaya established the Chola rule in Thanjavur in the 9th century CE.

    2. The capital of the Pallavas was –
      (A) Madurai (B) Kanchipuram (C) Thanjavur (D) Ujjain
      Answer: (B) Kanchipuram
      Explanation: Kanchipuram served as their capital and cultural center.

    3. The Pallava ruler who built the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was –
      (A) Narasimhavarman I (B) Mahendravarman I (C) Nandivarman II (D) Aparajita
      Answer: (A) Narasimhavarman I
      Explanation: Also called Mamalla; he built rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram.

    4. The Chola king who built the Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur was –
      (A) Rajendra I (B) Rajaraja I (C) Vijayalaya (D) Aditya I
      Answer: (B) Rajaraja I
      Explanation: The Brihadeshwara Temple (UNESCO site) was built around 1010 CE.

    5. Rajaraja I’s son who conquered Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia was –
      (A) Rajendra I (B) Aditya II (C) Vijayalaya (D) Kulottunga I
      Answer: (A) Rajendra I
      Explanation: He led naval expeditions to Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula.

    6. The Cholas maintained strong trade relations with –
      (A) China and Southeast Asia (B) Persia (C) Rome (D) Africa
      Answer: (A) China and Southeast Asia
      Explanation: Cholas sent embassies to China and traded through the Bay of Bengal.

    7. The Cheras ruled mainly in –
      (A) Kerala (B) Karnataka (C) Andhra (D) Bengal
      Answer: (A) Kerala
      Explanation: Cheras controlled the spice trade along the Malabar coast.

    8. The Pandya capital was –
      (A) Kanchipuram (B) Thanjavur (C) Madurai (D) Uraiyur
      Answer: (C) Madurai
      Explanation: Madurai was the political and cultural capital of the Pandyas.

    9. Kulasekhara Alvar was a ruler of the –
      (A) Cheras (B) Cholas (C) Pallavas (D) Pandyas
      Answer: (A) Cheras
      Explanation: He was both a Chera king and one of the Tamil Bhakti saints.

    10. The Cholas followed which architectural style?
      (A) Nagara (B) Dravida (C) Vesara (D) Indo-Islamic
      Answer: (B) Dravida
      Explanation: Chola temples like Brihadeshwara show typical Dravida architecture.

    11. The main source of Chola administration is –
      (A) Inscriptions (B) Buddhist texts (C) Arthashastra (D) Travelogues
      Answer: (A) Inscriptions
      Explanation: Chola inscriptions detail land, taxes, and village governance.

    12. The village assemblies under Cholas were called –
      (A) Sabha and Ur (B) Ganas (C) Mahajanas (D) Vidhatas
      Answer: (A) Sabha and Ur
      Explanation: ‘Sabha’ managed Brahmin villages; ‘Ur’ was for non-Brahmin settlements.

    13. The naval base of the Cholas was located at –
      (A) Nagapattinam (B) Tamralipti (C) Calicut (D) Kalyani
      Answer: (A) Nagapattinam
      Explanation: Nagapattinam was a major port and naval base for overseas expeditions.

    14. The Pandyas were famous for –
      (A) Pearl and maritime trade (B) Silk production (C) Gold mining (D) Cattle farming
      Answer: (A) Pearl and maritime trade
      Explanation: Pandya coast was known for pearls and sea trade.

    15. Which dynasty revived Tamil Sangam literature?
      (A) Pandyas (B) Pallavas (C) Cholas (D) Cheras
      Answer: (A) Pandyas
      Explanation: The Pandyas patronized the later Sangam age and Tamil learning.

    16. Rajaraja I built which famous temple?
      (A) Kailasanatha (B) Brihadeshwara (C) Shore Temple (D) Airavatesvara
      Answer: (B) Brihadeshwara
      Explanation: A masterpiece of Chola Dravidian architecture at Thanjavur.

    17. Rajendra I built a new capital called –
      (A) Gangaikonda Cholapuram (B) Kanchipuram (C) Madurai (D) Tanjore
      Answer: (A) Gangaikonda Cholapuram
      Explanation: Built after his victorious northern expedition; means “City of the Ganga Conqueror.”

    18. The Pallava art is best represented by the temples at –
      (A) Mahabalipuram (B) Ellora (C) Badami (D) Halebid
      Answer: (A) Mahabalipuram
      Explanation: Pallava art reached its zenith in rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram.

    19. The Pandya dynasty reached its height under –
      (A) Jatavarman Sundara Pandya (B) Kulasekhara (C) Rajasimha (D) Nandivarman
      Answer: (A) Jatavarman Sundara Pandya
      Explanation: He expanded Pandya power and patronized religion and trade.

    20. Which South Indian dynasty maintained close links with Sri Lanka?
      (A) Cholas (B) Pallavas (C) Cheras (D) Pandyas
      Answer: (A) Cholas
      Explanation: Cholas conquered Sri Lanka under Rajendra I and Rajaraja I.

    SECTION C – Eastern Indian Kingdoms (41 – 60)

    1. The founder of the Pala dynasty of Bengal was –
      (A) Dharmapala (B) Gopala (C) Devapala (D) Mahipala
      Answer: (B) Gopala
      Explanation: Gopala was elected by local chiefs around 750 CE; he established the Pala dynasty in Bengal.

    1. The Palas were great patrons of –
      (A) Buddhism (B) Jainism (C) Shaivism (D) Vaishnavism
      Answer: (A) Buddhism
      Explanation: The Palas patronized Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism; they supported Nalanda and Vikramashila universities.

    1. The Pala ruler who founded the Vikramashila University was –
      (A) Gopala (B) Dharmapala (C) Devapala (D) Mahipala
      Answer: (B) Dharmapala
      Explanation: Dharmapala established Vikramashila as a major center of Buddhist learning.

    1. Devapala, a famous Pala ruler, was known for –
      (A) Defeating the Pratiharas (B) Promoting Shaivism (C) Invading Tibet and Assam (D) Building the Kailasanatha temple
      Answer: (C) Invading Tibet and Assam
      Explanation: Devapala expanded the Pala Empire into Assam, Nepal, and parts of Orissa.

    1. The last important Pala ruler was –
      (A) Gopala II (B) Devapala (C) Mahipala I (D) Dharmapala
      Answer: (C) Mahipala I
      Explanation: Mahipala I restored Pala power temporarily in the 11th century.

    1. The Pala Empire was followed by the –
      (A) Sena dynasty (B) Pratiharas (C) Cholas (D) Rashtrakutas
      Answer: (A) Sena dynasty
      Explanation: The Senas replaced the Palas in Bengal during the 11th century CE.

    1. The founder of the Sena dynasty was –
      (A) Samantasena (B) Ballalasena (C) Lakshmanasena (D) Hemantasena
      Answer: (A) Samantasena
      Explanation: Samantasena, a Brahmin, founded the Sena dynasty; his descendants ruled Bengal till 1204 CE.

    1. The Sena ruler who introduced the Kulin system among Brahmins was –
      (A) Ballalasena (B) Lakshmanasena (C) Samantasena (D) Dharmapala
      Answer: (A) Ballalasena
      Explanation: Ballalasena reformed Brahmin social order by introducing the Kulin hierarchy.

    1. The last Sena ruler defeated by Bakhtiyar Khalji was –
      (A) Ballalasena (B) Lakshmanasena (C) Hemantasena (D) Gopala III
      Answer: (B) Lakshmanasena
      Explanation: In 1203 CE, Bakhtiyar Khalji captured Nadia, ending Sena rule.

    1. The Palas ruled over –
      (A) Bengal and Bihar (B) Assam (C) Gujarat (D) Tamil Nadu
      Answer: (A) Bengal and Bihar
      Explanation: Their empire covered eastern India including Bengal, Bihar, and parts of Odisha.

    1. The Senas were followers of –
      (A) Shaivism (B) Vaishnavism (C) Buddhism (D) Jainism
      Answer: (B) Vaishnavism
      Explanation: The Senas revived Brahmanical Hinduism, particularly Vaishnavism, in Bengal.

    1. The capital of the Sena dynasty was –
      (A) Gauda (B) Tamralipti (C) Kamarupa (D) Ujjain
      Answer: (A) Gauda
      Explanation: Gauda (modern Bengal region) served as their main capital.

    1. Which Pala ruler sent an envoy to the Chinese emperor?
      (A) Dharmapala (B) Devapala (C) Mahipala (D) Gopala
      Answer: (B) Devapala
      Explanation: Records mention his embassy to China, showing active foreign relations.

    1. The Palas supported which form of Buddhism?
      (A) Hinayana (B) Mahayana and Vajrayana (C) Theravada (D) Zen
      Answer: (B) Mahayana and Vajrayana
      Explanation: Pala art and monasteries were centers of these two Buddhist traditions.

    1. Bhaskaravarman was the ruler of –
      (A) Kamarupa (Assam) (B) Bengal (C) Odisha (D) Tripura
      Answer: (A) Kamarupa (Assam)
      Explanation: Bhaskaravarman ruled Assam and allied with Harshavardhana.

    1. The capital of Bhaskaravarman was –
      (A) Pragjyotishpur (B) Vallabhi (C) Kanchi (D) Pataliputra
      Answer: (A) Pragjyotishpur
      Explanation: Modern Guwahati; it was the capital of ancient Kamarupa.

    1. Bhaskaravarman’s contemporary in north India was –
      (A) Harshavardhana (B) Pulakesin II (C) Dharmapala (D) Rajaraja I
      Answer: (A) Harshavardhana
      Explanation: He was Harsha’s ally and supported cultural exchanges with north India.

    1. The Bhaumakaras ruled in –
      (A) Odisha (B) Bengal (C) Assam (D) Gujarat
      Answer: (A) Odisha
      Explanation: Bhaumakaras ruled coastal Odisha and patronized Buddhism and temple architecture.

    1. The Somavamsis ruled mainly in –
      (A) Odisha (B) Bihar (C) Assam (D) Bengal
      Answer: (A) Odisha
      Explanation: They succeeded the Bhaumakaras and built temples at Bhubaneswar and Puri.

    1. The Bhaumakaras were patrons of –
      (A) Buddhism (B) Shaivism (C) Jainism (D) Vaishnavism
      Answer: (A) Buddhism
      Explanation: They supported Buddhist viharas and art in Odisha.

    🌄 SECTION D – Western Indian Kingdoms (61 – 80)

    1. The Maitrakas ruled over –
      (A) Gujarat (B) Bengal (C) Tamil Nadu (D) Assam
      Answer: (A) Gujarat
      Explanation: The Maitrakas ruled Saurashtra and Kathiawar regions after the Guptas.

    1. The capital of the Maitrakas was –
      (A) Vallabhi (B) Kalyani (C) Ujjain (D) Patan
      Answer: (A) Vallabhi
      Explanation: Vallabhi was a great educational center like Nalanda.

    1. The Vallabhi University was famous for –
      (A) Buddhist learning (B) Military training (C) Mathematics (D) Astronomy
      Answer: (A) Buddhist learning
      Explanation: It was a renowned Buddhist university in western India.

    1. The Maitraka dynasty declined due to –
      (A) Arab invasions (B) Chola attack (C) Pala invasion (D) Internal revolt
      Answer: (A) Arab invasions
      Explanation: Arab raids in the 8th century weakened Maitraka rule.

    1. The Solanki rulers of Gujarat are also known as –
      (A) Chalukyas of Gujarat (B) Kalyani Chalukyas (C) Paramaras (D) Kalachuris
      Answer: (A) Chalukyas of Gujarat
      Explanation: Solankis belonged to the Chalukya lineage ruling Gujarat.

    1. The capital of the Solankis was –
      (A) Anahilapataka (Patan) (B) Vallabhi (C) Dhar (D) Kannauj
      Answer: (A) Anahilapataka (Patan)
      Explanation: Patan was the capital of Solanki kings.

    1. The famous Solanki king who built the Sun Temple at Modhera was –
      (A) Bhima I (B) Kumarapala (C) Siddharaja Jayasimha (D) Muladeva
      Answer: (A) Bhima I
      Explanation: The Sun Temple at Modhera is his most famous construction.

    1. Kumarapala, a Solanki ruler, adopted –
      (A) Jainism (B) Buddhism (C) Shaivism (D) Islam
      Answer: (A) Jainism
      Explanation: He became a follower of Jain teacher Hemachandra.

    1. The Solanki period is known for –
      (A) Temple architecture (B) Greek art (C) Maritime warfare (D) Stepwells only
      Answer: (A) Temple architecture
      Explanation: The Solankis built ornate temples and stepwells in Gujarat.

    1. The famous stepwell ‘Rani ki Vav’ was built at –
      (A) Patan (B) Vallabhi (C) Bhubaneshwar (D) Halebid
      Answer: (A) Patan
      Explanation: Built by Queen Udayamati, wife of Bhima I; a UNESCO heritage site.

    1. The Vallabhi University was contemporary of –
      (A) Nalanda (B) Takshashila (C) Vikramashila (D) Odantapuri
      Answer: (A) Nalanda
      Explanation: Vallabhi and Nalanda flourished around the 7th century CE.

    1. The Solankis were overthrown by –
      (A) Qutbuddin Aibak (B) Alauddin Khalji (C) Muhammad Ghori (D) Mahmud Ghazni
      Answer: (C) Muhammad Ghori
      Explanation: Muhammad Ghori defeated the last Solanki ruler in the late 12th century.

    1. Which Solanki ruler built a vast reservoir near Patan?
      (A) Siddharaja Jayasimha (B) Bhima I (C) Kumarapala (D) Muladeva
      Answer: (A) Siddharaja Jayasimha
      Explanation: He constructed the Sahasralinga Talav (a large tank) near Patan.

    1. The Maitrakas were originally feudatories of the –
      (A) Guptas (B) Rashtrakutas (C) Cholas (D) Kalachuris
      Answer: (A) Guptas
      Explanation: They declared independence after Gupta decline.

    1. The Solankis are best known for their contribution to –
      (A) Architecture (B) Science (C) Trade (D) Literature
      Answer: (A) Architecture
      Explanation: Solanki architecture combined beauty and structural precision.

    1. The rulers of Vallabhi were great patrons of –
      (A) Buddhism (B) Jainism (C) Vaishnavism (D) Shaivism
      Answer: (A) Buddhism
      Explanation: Vallabhi was a noted Buddhist center.

    1. The famous literary scholar Hemachandra lived under –
      (A) Kumarapala (B) Harsha (C) Dharmapala (D) Bhoja
      Answer: (A) Kumarapala
      Explanation: Hemachandra was a Jain scholar and philosopher under Kumarapala’s patronage.

    1. The Solanki kingdom flourished during which centuries?
      (A) 10th–13th (B) 6th–8th (C) 8th–9th (D) 13th–15th
      Answer: (A) 10th–13th
      Explanation: Solanki rule lasted from around 940 CE to 1240 CE.

    1. Which city in Gujarat became famous for its stepwell architecture?
      (A) Patan (B) Somnath (C) Junagarh (D) Vallabhi
      Answer: (A) Patan
      Explanation: Patan (Anahilapataka) was the Solanki capital known for stepwells.

    1. Who destroyed the Somnath Temple first in 1025 CE?
      (A) Mahmud of Ghazni (B) Muhammad Ghori (C) Qutbuddin Aibak (D) Alauddin Khalji
      Answer: (A) Mahmud of Ghazni
      Explanation: Mahmud of Ghazni’s 17th invasion targeted the Somnath temple for its wealth.

    SECTION E – Northern Indian Kingdoms (81 – 100)

    1. The founder of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty was –
      (A) Nagabhata I (B) Bhoja (C) Mihira Bhoja (D) Ramabhadra
      Answer: (A) Nagabhata I
      Explanation: Nagabhata I established the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty in western India around 730 CE.

    1. The capital of the Gurjara-Pratiharas was –
      (A) Kannauj (B) Dhar (C) Ujjain (D) Tripuri
      Answer: (A) Kannauj
      Explanation: Kannauj became the imperial capital of the Pratiharas during the Tripartite struggle.

    1. The most famous Pratihara ruler was –
      (A) Mihira Bhoja (B) Nagabhata II (C) Mahipala (D) Govindachandra
      Answer: (A) Mihira Bhoja
      Explanation: Mihira Bhoja (836–885 CE) expanded the empire and took the title Adivaraha (incarnation of Vishnu).

    1. The Tripartite struggle for Kannauj was among –
      (A) Palas, Rashtrakutas, and Pratiharas (B) Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras (C) Hoysalas, Yadavas, and Kakatiyas (D) Kalachuris, Solankis, and Paramaras
      Answer: (A) Palas, Rashtrakutas, and Pratiharas
      Explanation: These three powers competed for supremacy over north India and Kannauj.

    1. The Pratihara king who repelled Arab invasions in Rajasthan was –
      (A) Nagabhata I (B) Mihira Bhoja (C) Dharmapala (D) Devapala
      Answer: (A) Nagabhata I
      Explanation: He defeated Arab forces from Sindh and stopped their expansion into India.

    1. The Gurjara-Pratiharas were patrons of –
      (A) Vaishnavism (B) Jainism (C) Buddhism (D) Shaivism
      Answer: (A) Vaishnavism
      Explanation: They followed Vaishnavism but were tolerant of other faiths.

    1. The Pratihara empire declined due to –
      (A) Rashtrakuta invasions (B) Chola invasions (C) Ghurid invasion (D) Mongol attack
      Answer: (A) Rashtrakuta invasions
      Explanation: Continuous wars with the Rashtrakutas weakened the Pratihara empire.

    1. The Paramaras ruled over –
      (A) Malwa (B) Bengal (C) Orissa (D) Gujarat
      Answer: (A) Malwa
      Explanation: Their capital was Dhar; the most famous ruler was King Bhoja.

    1. King Bhoja of the Paramaras was famous as –
      (A) A scholar and patron of learning (B) A conqueror (C) A saint (D) A trader
      Answer: (A) A scholar and patron of learning
      Explanation: Bhoja authored Samarangana Sutradhara and patronized Sanskrit learning.

    1. The capital of the Paramaras was –
      (A) Dhar (B) Kannauj (C) Tripuri (D) Anahilapataka
      Answer: (A) Dhar
      Explanation: Dhar in Malwa was the capital and cultural center of the Paramaras.

    1. The Kalachuris ruled from –
      (A) Tripuri (Jabalpur) (B) Dhar (C) Kannauj (D) Vallabhi
      Answer: (A) Tripuri (Jabalpur)
      Explanation: The Kalachuris, also called Chedis, ruled central India with their capital at Tripuri.

    1. The Kalachuris were feudatories of the –
      (A) Rashtrakutas (B) Cholas (C) Pratiharas (D) Palas
      Answer: (A) Rashtrakutas
      Explanation: They served under Rashtrakutas before becoming independent.

    1. The Gahadavalas ruled over –
      (A) Kannauj and Varanasi (B) Gujarat (C) Odisha (D) Bengal
      Answer: (A) Kannauj and Varanasi
      Explanation: The Gahadavalas controlled the eastern Ganga plain region.

    1. The most powerful Gahadavala ruler was –
      (A) Govindachandra (B) Jayachandra (C) Chandradeva (D) Nagabhata
      Answer: (A) Govindachandra
      Explanation: Govindachandra consolidated Gahadavala power and resisted Muslim invasions.

    1. Jayachandra, the Gahadavala ruler, was defeated by –
      (A) Muhammad Ghori (B) Mahmud of Ghazni (C) Alauddin Khalji (D) Qutbuddin Aibak
      Answer: (A) Muhammad Ghori
      Explanation: Jayachandra was defeated and killed in the Battle of Chandawar (1194 CE).

    1. The Gurjara-Pratiharas were contemporaries of –
      (A) Palas and Rashtrakutas (B) Cholas and Pandyas (C) Hoysalas (D) Satavahanas
      Answer: (A) Palas and Rashtrakutas
      Explanation: These three dynasties dominated the early medieval political scene.

    1. King Bhoja’s famous book on architecture is –
      (A) Samarangana Sutradhara (B) Arthashastra (C) Manasollasa (D) Rajatarangini
      Answer: (A) Samarangana Sutradhara
      Explanation: Written by Bhoja, it deals with architecture, sculpture, and town planning.

    1. The Paramaras were overthrown by –
      (A) Delhi Sultanate (B) Rashtrakutas (C) Chalukyas (D) Kalachuris
      Answer: (A) Delhi Sultanate
      Explanation: The Paramaras declined after Muslim invasions in the early 14th century.

    1. Which northern dynasty played a major role in the Tripartite struggle?
      (A) Gurjara-Pratiharas (B) Gahadavalas (C) Paramaras (D) Solankis
      Answer: (A) Gurjara-Pratiharas
      Explanation: They fought the Palas and Rashtrakutas for control of Kannauj.

    1. The Gahadavalas are remembered for –
      (A) Promoting Hindu religion and learning (B) Sea trade (C) Buddhist patronage (D) Jain philosophy
      Answer: (A) Promoting Hindu religion and learning
      Explanation: They were staunch Hindus and patrons of temples and Sanskrit scholars.

    SECTION F – Economy, Administration, and Polity (101 – 120)

    1. The early medieval Indian polity is generally characterized by –
      (A) Centralization of power
      (B) Decentralization and regionalism
      (C) Republican system
      (D) Absence of monarchies
      Answer: (B) Decentralization and regionalism
      Explanation: After the Guptas, power became fragmented and local chiefs (Samantas) gained autonomy.

    1. The term ‘Samanta’ in early medieval India referred to –
      (A) Village headman
      (B) Feudatory chiefs
      (C) Traders
      (D) Soldiers
      Answer: (B) Feudatory chiefs
      Explanation: Samantas were local rulers who accepted the king’s suzerainty in exchange for land and privileges.

    1. Which of the following was a key feature of the early medieval administration?
      (A) Bureaucratic centralization
      (B) Hereditary offices
      (C) Frequent elections
      (D) No taxation
      Answer: (B) Hereditary offices
      Explanation: Administrative and military positions often became hereditary under feudal conditions.

    1. Legitimation of kingship was ensured mainly through –
      (A) Religious rituals and temple donations
      (B) Elections
      (C) Trade guilds
      (D) People’s assemblies
      Answer: (A) Religious rituals and temple donations
      Explanation: Kings legitimized their rule through yajnas, inscriptions, and temple patronage.

    1. The ‘agrahara’ grant referred to –
      (A) Land given to Brahmins
      (B) Land leased to peasants
      (C) Tax-free market town
      (D) Pastoral land
      Answer: (A) Land given to Brahmins
      Explanation: Agraharas were tax-free villages granted to Brahmins for religious and educational purposes.

    1. The economy of early medieval India was primarily –
      (A) Urban industrial
      (B) Agricultural and rural
      (C) Maritime-based
      (D) Hunting-based
      Answer: (B) Agricultural and rural
      Explanation: The majority of the population was engaged in agriculture under feudal relations.

    1. The term ‘Bali-Kara-Bhoga’ in inscriptions refers to –
      (A) Three types of taxes
      (B) Temple donations
      (C) Religious gifts
      (D) Military levies
      Answer: (A) Three types of taxes
      Explanation: Bali (tribute), Kara (tax), Bhoga (produce share) were common forms of revenue.

    1. Feudalism in early medieval India was based on –
      (A) Land grants and personal allegiance
      (B) Free trade and democracy
      (C) Industrial production
      (D) Foreign investment
      Answer: (A) Land grants and personal allegiance
      Explanation: Feudal relations developed as rulers granted land to officials and samantas in return for loyalty and service.

    1. The ‘donee’ in a land grant inscription was usually –
      (A) A Brahmin or temple
      (B) A soldier
      (C) A trader
      (D) A farmer
      Answer: (A) A Brahmin or temple
      Explanation: Land was gifted mainly to Brahmins and temples to gain religious merit.

    1. The principal unit of local administration was –
      (A) Village (Grama)
      (B) District
      (C) Empire
      (D) Mandala
      Answer: (A) Village (Grama)
      Explanation: The village formed the basic unit of administration, both in revenue and judicial matters.

    1. Water resources in early medieval India were mainly managed by –
      (A) Local communities and kings jointly
      (B) British officers
      (C) Feudal lords alone
      (D) Buddhist monks
      Answer: (A) Local communities and kings jointly
      Explanation: Tank irrigation and canals were often built by rulers but maintained by local people.

    1. Coins during this period were mostly made of –
      (A) Gold, silver, and copper
      (B) Bronze only
      (C) Iron
      (D) Tin
      Answer: (A) Gold, silver, and copper
      Explanation: Different metals were used regionally, though gold coins declined in circulation.

    1. Which dynasty issued gold coins called ‘Dinara’?
      (A) Guptas (B) Cholas (C) Hoysalas (D) Pandyas
      Answer: (A) Guptas
      Explanation: The Guptas continued the Kushana tradition of gold coins called Dinaras; later, silver and copper dominated.

    1. The term ‘Bhukti’ in inscriptions meant –
      (A) District or administrative division
      (B) Religious endowment
      (C) Market center
      (D) Port town
      Answer: (A) District or administrative division
      Explanation: A Bhukti was a territorial division under a governor or vishayapati.

    1. The Cholas are known for their efficient system of –
      (A) Village self-government
      (B) Military rule
      (C) Centralized taxation
      (D) Maritime restrictions
      Answer: (A) Village self-government
      Explanation: Chola inscriptions show autonomous village assemblies (Sabha, Ur) managing local affairs.

    1. Temple wealth during this period mainly came from –
      (A) Land endowments and donations
      (B) Foreign loans
      (C) Slave labor
      (D) Mining revenues
      Answer: (A) Land endowments and donations
      Explanation: Temples received lands and taxes from kings and devotees; they became economic centers.

    1. Trade guilds such as ‘Manigramam’ and ‘Ayyavole 500’ were active in –
      (A) South India
      (B) North India
      (C) Western India only
      (D) Assam
      Answer: (A) South India
      Explanation: These merchant guilds traded across South and Southeast Asia.

    1. Ports like Nagapattinam and Tamralipti were famous for –
      (A) Overseas trade with Southeast Asia
      (B) Military fortifications
      (C) Shipbuilding only
      (D) Religious pilgrimages
      Answer: (A) Overseas trade with Southeast Asia
      Explanation: Indian goods like spices, textiles, and ivory were exported to Sri Lanka and Java.

    1. The famous trade route connecting north and south India was –
      (A) Dakshinapatha
      (B) Uttarapatha
      (C) Silk Route
      (D) Aryavarta Patha
      Answer: (A) Dakshinapatha
      Explanation: Dakshinapatha connected northern markets with peninsular ports.

    1. Temple-centered urbanization refers to –
      (A) Growth of towns around major temples
      (B) Rural self-sufficiency
      (C) City-states like Athens
      (D) Military cantonments
      Answer: (A) Growth of towns around major temples
      Explanation: Temples became focal points of economy and social life, attracting artisans and merchants.

    SECTION G – Religion, Society, and Culture (121 – 140)

    1. The dominant religions of early medieval India were –
      (A) Vaisnavism and Saivism
      (B) Buddhism and Jainism
      (C) Islam and Christianity
      (D) Judaism and Zoroastrianism
      Answer: (A) Vaisnavism and Saivism
      Explanation: Brahminical Hinduism revived with temples dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva across regions.

    1. The temple became a center of –
      (A) Religious, social, and economic life
      (B) Only worship
      (C) Military training
      (D) Political rebellion
      Answer: (A) Religious, social, and economic life
      Explanation: Temples functioned as banks, employers, and educational institutions besides being religious places.

    1. The Nagara style of temple architecture developed mainly in –
      (A) North India
      (B) South India
      (C) Deccan
      (D) Sri Lanka
      Answer: (A) North India
      Explanation: The Nagara style features curvilinear towers (Shikharas) like those at Khajuraho.

    1. The Dravida style of temples developed in –
      (A) South India
      (B) North India
      (C) Gujarat
      (D) Bengal
      Answer: (A) South India
      Explanation: Dravida temples have pyramidal towers (Vimanas), e.g., Brihadeshwara Temple.

    1. The Vesara style is a blend of –
      (A) Nagara and Dravida styles
      (B) Greek and Persian styles
      (C) Buddhist and Jain styles
      (D) Indian and Islamic styles
      Answer: (A) Nagara and Dravida styles
      Explanation: The Vesara style evolved in the Deccan under the Chalukyas and Hoysalas.

    1. The Bhakti movement in South India was led by –
      (A) Nayanars and Alvars
      (B) Kabir and Nanak
      (C) Shankaracharya and Ramanuja
      (D) Buddha and Mahavira
      Answer: (A) Nayanars and Alvars
      Explanation: Nayanars (Shaivite saints) and Alvars (Vaishnavite saints) preached emotional devotion.

    1. The Bhakti movement emphasized –
      (A) Personal devotion over ritualism
      (B) Vedic sacrifices
      (C) Ascetic life only
      (D) Rational philosophy
      Answer: (A) Personal devotion over ritualism
      Explanation: Bhakti saints rejected caste and priestly rituals, emphasizing love and surrender to God.

    1. The philosopher who propounded Advaita (non-dualism) was –
      (A) Shankaracharya
      (B) Ramanujacharya
      (C) Madhavacharya
      (D) Vallabhacharya
      Answer: (A) Shankaracharya
      Explanation: Shankara taught monism—Brahman and Atman are identical.

    1. Ramanujacharya was the proponent of –
      (A) Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism)
      (B) Dvaita
      (C) Advaita
      (D) Sunyavada
      Answer: (A) Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism)
      Explanation: Ramanuja emphasized a personal God and devotional surrender.

    1. Madhavacharya’s philosophy is known as –
      (A) Dvaita (dualism)
      (B) Advaita
      (C) Vishishtadvaita
      (D) Charvaka
      Answer: (A) Dvaita (dualism)
      Explanation: He taught that God and the soul are eternally distinct.

    1. The Tamil Bhakti saints belonged mainly to –
      (A) 6th–9th centuries CE
      (B) 1st century BCE
      (C) 12th–14th centuries CE
      (D) Gupta period
      Answer: (A) 6th–9th centuries CE
      Explanation: The Bhakti movement started in Tamil Nadu during this time under Pallava rule.

    1. Temples served as centers for –
      (A) Learning and record keeping
      (B) Political conspiracies
      (C) Foreign missions
      (D) None of these
      Answer: (A) Learning and record keeping
      Explanation: Temple complexes kept land records, inscriptions, and served as schools and libraries.

    1. The concept of Dana in this period meant –
      (A) Charity and gift giving
      (B) Tax collection
      (C) Wage payment
      (D) War donation
      Answer: (A) Charity and gift giving
      Explanation: Dana became a religious act, especially land and wealth donations to Brahmins or temples.

    1. The concept of Tirtha referred to –
      (A) Pilgrimage
      (B) Holy war
      (C) Land tax
      (D) Feudal title
      Answer: (A) Pilgrimage
      Explanation: Visiting sacred places became an important religious duty.

    1. Untouchability during this period –
      (A) Became more rigid
      (B) Declined completely
      (C) Was not practiced
      (D) Was abolished by law
      Answer: (A) Became more rigid
      Explanation: The Varna system became more hierarchical and caste boundaries solidified.

    1. Women in early medieval India –
      (A) Had limited property rights
      (B) Ruled independently in many cases
      (C) Enjoyed absolute freedom
      (D) Could not own land at all
      Answer: (A) Had limited property rights
      Explanation: Women had rights to stridhan (personal property), though inheritance was male-dominated.

    1. A notable woman ruler of this period was –
      (A) Rani Rudrama Devi (B) Razia Sultan (C) Ahilyabai Holkar (D) Nur Jahan
      Answer: (A) Rani Rudrama Devi
      Explanation: She ruled the Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal effectively in the 13th century.

    1. Education in this period was mainly imparted in –
      (A) Agraharas, Mathas, and Mahaviharas
      (B) Modern universities
      (C) Military schools
      (D) Palace courts only
      Answer: (A) Agraharas, Mathas, and Mahaviharas
      Explanation: Brahmin and Buddhist institutions became major educational centers.

    1. Nalanda and Vikramashila were centers of –
      (A) Buddhist learning
      (B) Vedic rituals
      (C) Jain education
      (D) Muslim theology
      Answer: (A) Buddhist learning
      Explanation: Both were world-renowned universities supported by the Palas.

    1. Regional languages that developed during this period include –
      (A) Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Bengali, Marathi
      (B) Greek and Latin
      (C) Sanskrit only
      (D) Persian and Arabic
      Answer: (A) Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Bengali, Marathi
      Explanation: Regional kingdoms promoted local languages and literatures alongside Sanskrit.

  • UGC NET History Unit-3 Emergence of Regional Kingdoms (c. 600–1200 CE)

    (UGC NET History Notes – Early Medieval India)

    🧭 1. Introduction: The Early Medieval Period

    Timeframe: 600 CE – 1200 CE
    Transitional phase between the decline of Gupta Empire and the rise of Delhi Sultanate.

    🔹 Key Features:

    • Decline of centralized empires → rise of regional powers.

    • Emergence of feudalism – local lords and intermediaries gained power.

    • Temple-centered economy and agrarian expansion.

    • Development of regional languages, literature, and cultures.

    • Integration of tribal areas into the mainstream agrarian society.

    🏞️ 2. Regional Kingdoms of India

    🔶 A. Deccan Kingdoms

    1. Gangas of Talakad (Karnataka)

    • Ruled: 4th–10th CE

    • Capital: Talakad

    • Rulers: Durvinita, Avinita

    • Notes:

      • Patronized Jainism and Kannada literature.

      • Built the Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola.

      • Practiced land grants and maintained inscriptions in Kannada.

    2. Kadambas of Banavasi

    • Founder: Mayurasarman

    • Period: 4th–6th CE

    • Notes:

      • Early native Kannada rulers.

      • Used Kannada and Sanskrit in administration.

      • Example of early Brahmin land grants (Agraharas).

    3. Western Chalukyas of Badami

    • Period: 6th–8th CE

    • Capital: Vatapi (Badami)

    • Rulers: Pulakesin I, Pulakesin II, Vikramaditya I

    • Notes:

      • Pulakesin II defeated Harshavardhana.

      • Great patrons of art & architecture – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal (UNESCO site).

      • Promoted Vesara style of architecture.

    4. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

    • Capital: Vengi (Andhra)

    • Founder: Vishnuvardhana (brother of Pulakesin II)

    • Notes:

      • Ruled coastal Andhra region.

      • Maintained alliances with Cholas through marriage.

      • Promoted Telugu language and culture.

    5. Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta

    • Period: 8th–10th CE

    • Founder: Dantidurga

    • Rulers: Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I

    • Notes:

      • Built Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora.

      • Patronized Jainism and literature (Kavirajamarga).

      • Ruled extensive areas from Gujarat to Tamil Nadu.

    6. Kalyani Chalukyas (Later Chalukyas)

    • Period: 10th–12th CE

    • Founder: Tailapa II

    • Capital: Kalyani (Basavakalyan)

    • Notes:

      • Revived Chalukya power after Rashtrakutas.

      • Ruler Vikramaditya VI issued Chalukya Vikrama Era.

      • Encouraged temple building (Vesara style).

    7. Kakatiyas of Warangal

    • Period: 12th–14th CE

    • Rulers: Rudradeva, Ganapatideva, Rani Rudrama Devi

    • Notes:

      • Developed irrigation through tanks (Cheruvu system).

      • Encouraged agriculture and trade.

      • Patronized Telugu literature.

    8. Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra (Halebid)

    • Period: 11th–14th CE

    • Rulers: Vishnuvardhana, Ballala II

    • Notes:

      • Built Belur and Halebid temples.

      • Promoted Kannada literature and Jainism.

      • Vesara style architecture with intricate carvings.

    9. Yadavas of Devagiri

    • Period: 9th–14th CE

    • Rulers: Bhillama V, Singhana

    • Notes:

      • Ruled over Maharashtra.

      • Patronized Marathi and temple art.

      • Defeated by Alauddin Khalji (1296 CE).

    🔶 B. South Indian Kingdoms

    1. Pallavas of Kanchipuram

    • Period: 6th–9th CE

    • Rulers: Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I

    • Notes:

      • Built Mahabalipuram shore temples & Kailasanatha temple.

      • Promoted Sanskrit and Tamil literature.

      • Frequent conflicts with Chalukyas.

    2. Ceras (Cheras) of Kerala

    • Capital: Vanji (Karur)

    • Notes:

      • Controlled western coast & spice trade.

      • Engaged in maritime trade with Arabs and Romans.

      • Kulasekhara dynasty revived Chera power in 9th CE.

    3. Cholas of Thanjavur

    • Period: 9th–13th CE

    • Rulers: Vijayalaya, Rajaraja I, Rajendra I

    • Notes:

      • Strongest South Indian empire.

      • Rajaraja I built Brihadeshwara temple (Thanjavur).

      • Rajendra I conquered Sri Lanka & Southeast Asia.

      • Developed navy, efficient administration, and temple economy.

    4. Pandyas of Madurai

    • Capital: Madurai

    • Notes:

      • Patronized Tamil Sangam literature.

      • Promoted trade and temples.

      • Later subjugated by Delhi Sultanate (14th CE).

    🔶 C. Eastern Indian Kingdoms

    1. Palas of Bengal & Bihar

    • Period: 8th–12th CE

    • Founders: Gopala, Dharmapala, Devapala

    • Notes:

      • Patrons of Buddhism.

      • Founded Nalanda, Vikramashila, and Odantapuri universities.

      • Trade links with Tibet and Southeast Asia.

    2. Senas of Bengal

    • Period: 11th–13th CE

    • Rulers: Ballalasena, Lakshmanasena

    • Notes:

      • Revived Brahmanical Hinduism.

      • Lakshmanasena ruled during Bakhtiyar Khalji’s invasion (1203 CE).

    3. Varmans of Kamarupa (Assam)

    • Ruler: Bhaskaravarman (7th CE)

    • Notes:

      • Ally of Harsha; promoted Buddhism & Hinduism.

    4. Bhaumakaras and Somavamsis of Odisha

    • Notes:

      • Patronized Saivism and Vaisnavism.

      • Built temples at Bhubaneswar and Puri.

    🔶 D. Western Indian Kingdoms

    1. Maitrakas of Vallabhi (Gujarat)

    • Period: 6th–8th CE

    • Notes:

      • Successors of Guptas in western India.

      • Established Vallabhi University, rival to Nalanda.

      • Patronized Buddhism and learning.

    2. Chalukyas of Gujarat (Solankis)

    • Period: 10th–13th CE

    • Rulers: Bhima I, Kumarapala

    • Notes:

      • Capital: Anahilapataka (Patan).

      • Built Sun Temple at Modhera.

      • Promoted Jainism and trade.

    🔶 E. Northern Indian Kingdoms

    1. Gurjara-Pratiharas

    • Period: 8th–11th CE

    • Capital: Kannauj

    • Rulers: Nagabhata I, Mihira Bhoja

    • Notes:

      • Defended north India from Arab invasions.

      • Engaged in Tripartite Struggle with Palas and Rashtrakutas for Kannauj.

    2. Kalachuris (Chedis)

    • Capital: Tripuri (Jabalpur)

    • Rulers: Kokalla I

    • Notes:

      • Feudatories of Rashtrakutas; promoted Shaivism.

    3. Gahadavalas of Kannauj

    • Period: 11th–12th CE

    • Rulers: Govindachandra, Jayachandra

    • Notes:

      • Controlled Varanasi & eastern U.P.

      • Jayachandra killed in 1194 CE during Ghurid invasion.

    4. Paramaras of Malwa

    • Capital: Dhar

    • Ruler: Bhoja

    • Notes:

      • Scholar-ruler; author of Samarangana Sutradhara on architecture.

      • Patron of art, architecture, and Sanskrit learning.

    ⚖️ 3. Administration and Kingship

    🔹 Political Features:

    • Decentralized polity – rise of local chiefs (Samantas).

    • Feudal structure – land granted to officials and temples.

    • Kingship legitimized through:

      • Religious rituals (Rajasuya, Ashvamedha).

      • Genealogical records.

      • Temple building and land donations.

    • Administration divided into Mandala → Vishaya → Grama.

    🌾 4. Agrarian Economy

    • Expansion of agriculture due to land grants and irrigation works.

    • Emergence of new peasant classes (tenant cultivators).

    • Taxes:

      • Bhoga (produce)

      • Kara (land tax)

      • Bali (tribute).

    • Irrigation: tanks, wells, canals (esp. under Cholas & Kakatiyas).

    • Coins: Gold (dinara), silver, and copper; monetization limited.

    ⚓ 5. Trade and Urbanization

    • Revival of internal & external trade.

    • Ports: Tamralipti, Nagapattinam, Kaveripattinam, Calicut.

    • Guilds: Ayyavole 500, Manigramam, Anjuvannam – controlled commerce.

    • Trade with Arabs, China, and Southeast Asia (Srivijaya, Java).

    • Urban centers: temple towns, craft centers, and ports.

    • Growth of merchant guilds with semi-autonomous powers.

    🛕 6. Religion and Temple Culture

    • Dominant faiths: Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

    • Temple architecture styles:

      • Nagara (North India) – e.g., Khajuraho.

      • Dravida (South India) – e.g., Brihadeshwara.

      • Vesara (Deccan) – e.g., Pattadakal.

    • Philosophical schools:

      • Shankara – Advaita (Monism).

      • Ramanuja – Vishishtadvaita.

      • Madhava – Dvaita.

    • Tamil Bhakti movement:

      • Nayanars (Shaivites) & Alvars (Vaishnavites).

      • Stressed personal devotion over ritualism.

    • Temples served as religious, social, and economic centers.

    👩‍👩‍👧 7. Society

    • Varna and Jati: Expansion of castes based on occupation.

    • Tribal assimilation: Tribes became peasants or warriors.

    • Position of women:

      • Patriarchal structure.

      • Limited property rights.

      • Instances of powerful queens (Rudrama Devi).

    • Untouchability: Became rigid.

    • Marriage: Patriarchal, arranged, and dowry-based.

    🎓 8. Education and Cultural Developments

    • Centers of learning:

      • Agraharas – Brahmin educational settlements.

      • Mathas – monasteries for Vedic study.

      • Mahaviharas – Buddhist universities (Nalanda, Vikramashila).

    • Languages:

      • Sanskrit continued as elite language.

      • Regional languages like Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Bengali, Marathi flourished.

    • Literature:

      • Emergence of Bhakti poetry, devotional songs, and inscriptions.

    🧩 9. Debates on State Formation

    Model Scholar Core Idea
    Feudal Model R.S. Sharma Land grants led to decentralization and decline in trade → feudalism.
    Segmentary Model Burton Stein Chola state was a ritual center; local units functioned autonomously.
    Integrative Model B.D. Chattopadhyaya Integration of local polities under a larger cultural-political framework.

    🕌 10. Arab Contacts and Islamic Invasions

    • Arab merchants traded with India since ancient times (Malabar & Sindh).

    • Suleiman (Arab traveller, 9th c.) described Indian ports and prosperity.

    • Mahmud of Ghazni (1000–1027 CE):

      • Invaded India 17 times.

      • Raided temples (esp. Somnath).

    • Alberuni (Al-Biruni):

      • Wrote Tahqiq-i-Hind (Kitab al-Hind).

      • Described Indian sciences, religion, and culture objectively.

    🪔 11. Summary (Key Points to Remember)

    • Period of regional kingdoms and cultural florescence.

    • Rise of feudalism and temple economy.

    • Expansion of agriculture, trade, and urbanization.

    • Spread of Brahminical religions and Bhakti movement.

    • Growth of regional identities and languages.

    • Theoretical debates on state formation: feudal, segmentary, and integrative models.

    Regional Kingdoms of India

    🔶 A. Deccan Kingdoms

    Dynasty Time Period Capital Prominent Rulers Major Features
    Gangas (Western Gangas) 4th–10th CE Talakad (Karnataka) Durvinita, Avinita Patronized Jainism; constructed Gommateshwara statue (Shravanabelagola); used Kannada in inscriptions.
    Kadambas 4th–6th CE Banavasi Mayurasarman First native Kannada rulers; promoted Sanskrit & Kannada literature; early example of land grants to Brahmins.
    Western Chalukyas of Badami 6th–8th CE Vatapi (Badami) Pulakesin I & II, Vikramaditya I Pulakesin II defeated Harsha; built rock-cut temples at Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal (UNESCO site).
    Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi 7th–12th CE Vengi (Andhra) Vishnuvardhana, Vijayaditya Offshoot of Western Chalukyas; alliance with Cholas; promoted Telugu literature.
    Rashtrakutas 8th–10th CE Manyakheta (Malkhed) Dantidurga, Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I Great patrons of art & literature (Amoghavarsha’s Kavirajamarga); built Kailasa temple, Ellora; encouraged Jainism.
    Kalyani Chalukyas (Later Chalukyas) 10th–12th CE Kalyani Tailapa II, Vikramaditya VI Revival after Rashtrakutas; developed Vesara style of temple architecture; ruled Karnataka region.
    Kakatiyas 12th–14th CE Warangal Rudradeva, Ganapatideva, Rani Rudrama Devi Promoted irrigation tanks (Cheruvu); encouraged temple architecture; later defeated by Delhi Sultanate.
    Hoysalas 11th–14th CE Dvarasamudra (Halebidu) Vishnuvardhana, Ballala II Built temples at Belur & Halebid; patronized Kannada literature; tolerant towards Jainism and Vaishnavism.
    Yadavas of Devagiri 9th–14th CE Devagiri (Daulatabad) Bhillama V, Singhana Ruled Maharashtra; encouraged Marathi; conquered by Alauddin Khalji (1296).

    🔶 B. South Indian Kingdoms

    Dynasty Period Capital Major Rulers Features
    Pallavas 6th–9th CE Kanchipuram Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I Patrons of architecture (Mahabalipuram Shore Temple, Kailasanatha Temple); Sanskrit & Tamil scholars.
    Ceras (Cheras) 9th–12th CE Vanji (Kerala) Kulasekhara Alvar Controlled western coast; active in Indian Ocean trade (spices, pearls).
    Cholas 9th–13th CE Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram Vijayalaya, Rajaraja I, Rajendra I Strong navy; conquered Sri Lanka & Southeast Asia; Brihadeshwara Temple (Tanjore); efficient administration.
    Pandyas 7th–14th CE Madurai Kadungon, Jatavarman Sundara Pandya Patronized Tamil Sangam; promoted trade & temples; later subjugated by Delhi Sultanate.

    🔶 C. Eastern Indian Kingdoms

    Dynasty Period Region Important Rulers Contributions
    Palas 8th–12th CE Bengal & Bihar Gopala, Dharmapala, Devapala Patronized Buddhism; founded Vikramashila & Nalanda universities; trade with Southeast Asia.
    Senas 11th–13th CE Bengal Samantasena, Ballalasena, Lakshmanasena Revival of Hinduism; patronized Sanskrit; Lakshmanasena ruled during Bakhtiyar Khalji’s invasion.
    Varmans 7th–9th CE Kamarupa (Assam) Bhaskaravarman Ally of Harsha; promoted Buddhism and Hinduism.
    Bhaumakaras 8th–10th CE Odisha Subhakaradeva Patronized Buddhism and temple construction.
    Somavamsis 9th–12th CE Odisha Yayati I, Yayati II Introduced Saivism; built temples at Bhubaneswar.

    🔶 D. Western Indian Kingdoms

    Dynasty Region Capital Features
    Maitrakas Gujarat Vallabhi Successors of Guptas; Vallabhi University rivaled Nalanda; patrons of Buddhism.
    Chalukyas of Gujarat (Solankis) Gujarat Anahilapataka (Patan) Bhima I, Siddharaja Jayasimha, Kumarapala; patrons of Jainism and temple architecture (Modhera Sun Temple).

    🔶 E. Northern Indian Kingdoms

    Dynasty Capital Major Rulers Features
    Gurjara-Pratiharas Kannauj Nagabhata I, Mihira Bhoja Defended India from Arab invasions; promoted Sanskrit culture; part of “Tripartite Struggle”.
    Kalachuris (Chedis) Tripuri (Jabalpur) Kokalla I Feudatories of Rashtrakutas; promoted Shaivism; issued land grants.
    Gahadavalas Varanasi & Kannauj Govindachandra, Jayachandra Resisted Ghurid invasions; patrons of learning and temples.
    Paramaras Malwa (Dhar) Bhoja Scholar-king; author of Samarangana Sutradhara; patron of Sanskrit learning and architecture (Bhojpur temple)

  • NET History Unit-2 From State to Empire MCQs

    Part A – Rise of Magadha and Alexander’s Invasion (Q1 – 20)

    Q1. The rise of Magadha began mainly due to:
    (A) Iron resources and fertile plains
    (B) Proximity to sea trade
    (C) Gold mines
    (D) Foreign alliances
    Answer: (A)
    Explanation: Magadha’s iron deposits and fertile Ganga plains helped build a strong economy and army.

    Q2. The founder of the Haryanka dynasty was:
    (A) Ajatasatru
    (B) Bimbisara
    (C) Mahapadma Nanda
    (D) Udayin
    Answer: (B)

    Q3. Bimbisara strengthened Magadha by:
    (A) Conquests only
    (B) Diplomatic marriages and alliances
    (C) Religious reforms
    (D) Trade with China
    Answer: (B)

    Q4. Ajatasatru’s weapon of warfare was called:
    (A) Vajra
    (B) Rathamusala
    (C) Gada
    (D) Kunda
    Answer: (B) – A chariot fitted with blades.

    Q5. The last ruler before the Mauryas was:
    (A) Shishunaga
    (B) Mahapadma Nanda
    (C) Dhanananda
    (D) Pushyamitra
    Answer: (C)

    Q6. Alexander fought Porus at the battle of:
    (A) Hydaspes (Jhelum)
    (B) Beas
    (C) Khyber
    (D) Indus
    Answer: (A)

    Q7. Alexander’s invasion took place in:
    (A) 400 BCE
    (B) 327 – 325 BCE
    (C) 250 BCE
    (D) 500 BCE
    Answer: (B)

    Q8. The Greek historian who wrote Indica was:
    (A) Ptolemy
    (B) Megasthenes
    (C) Arrian
    (D) Strabo
    Answer: (B)

    Q9. Immediate result of Alexander’s invasion:
    (A) Destruction of cities
    (B) Opening of north-west India to Greek contact
    (C) End of Magadha
    (D) Rise of Buddhism
    Answer: (B)

    Q10. The empire that filled the power vacuum after Alexander was:
    (A) Nandas
    (B) Mauryas
    (C) Sungas
    (D) Guptas
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part B – The Mauryan Empire (Q21 – 50)

    Q21. Founder of the Mauryan Empire:
    (A) Ashoka
    (B) Chandragupta Maurya
    (C) Bindusara
    (D) Mahapadma Nanda
    Answer: (B)

    Q22. Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nikator in:
    (A) 321 BCE
    (B) 305 BCE
    (C) 273 BCE
    (D) 261 BCE
    Answer: (B)

    Q23. Seleucus received which gift in return?
    (A) Indus region
    (B) 500 elephants
    (C) Gold coins
    (D) Pearls
    Answer: (B)

    Q24. The Greek ambassador to Chandragupta’s court was:
    (A) Megasthenes
    (B) Arrian
    (C) Ptolemy
    (D) Strabo
    Answer: (A)

    Q25. Arthashastra deals with:
    (A) Astronomy
    (B) Political science and economics
    (C) Religion
    (D) Literature
    Answer: (B)

    Q26. Bindusara’s Greek name “Amitrochates” means:
    (A) Lover of peace
    (B) Slayer of foes
    (C) Friend of Greeks
    (D) Pious king
    Answer: (B)

    Q27. Ashoka’s Kalinga War was fought in:
    (A) 273 BCE
    (B) 261 BCE
    (C) 250 BCE
    (D) 232 BCE
    Answer: (B)

    Q28. The main cause of Ashoka’s remorse was:
    (A) Economic loss
    (B) Huge bloodshed in Kalinga
    (C) Defeat in battle
    (D) Revolt of soldiers
    Answer: (B)

    Q29. Ashoka’s Dhamma emphasized:
    (A) Ritual sacrifices
    (B) Moral and social duties
    (C) Conquest by force
    (D) Wealth accumulation
    Answer: (B)

    Q30. Ashokan edicts are mostly in:
    (A) Sanskrit and Kharosthi
    (B) Prakrit and Brahmi
    (C) Pali and Greek
    (D) Tamil and Pali
    Answer: (B)

    Q31. The Major Rock Edict XIII refers to:
    (A) Kalinga War
    (B) Animal sacrifice
    (C) Missionaries to Sri Lanka
    (D) Social reforms
    Answer: (A)

    Q32. The Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath depicts:
    (A) Bull capital
    (B) Lion capital
    (C) Elephant capital
    (D) Horse capital
    Answer: (B)

    Q33. Ashoka’s missionary son and daughter were:
    (A) Kunal and Tissa
    (B) Mahinda and Sanghamitta
    (C) Susima and Devi
    (D) Bindu and Rukmavati
    Answer: (B)

    Q34. The Barabar caves were gifted to:
    (A) Buddhists
    (B) Ajivikas
    (C) Jains
    (D) Hindus
    Answer: (B)

    Q35. The Mauryan capital was:
    (A) Taxila
    (B) Rajgir
    (C) Pataliputra
    (D) Ujjain
    Answer: (C)

    Q36. The Mauryan administration was:
    (A) Feudal
    (B) Decentralized
    (C) Highly centralized
    (D) Tribal
    Answer: (C)

    Q37. “Samaharta” in Mauryan administration was:
    (A) Chief Justice
    (B) Tax collector
    (C) Army chief
    (D) Chief minister
    Answer: (B)

    Q38. The main cause of Mauryan decline:
    (A) Religious tolerance
    (B) Over-centralization and weak successors
    (C) Lack of trade
    (D) No army
    Answer: (B)

    Q39. Pushyamitra Shunga overthrew:
    (A) Ashoka
    (B) Brihadratha Maurya
    (C) Bindusara
    (D) Dasaratha Maurya
    Answer: (B)

    Q40. The Sarnath Lion Capital is the:
    (A) National Flag
    (B) National Emblem of India
    (C) Symbol of Kalinga
    (D) Coin Design
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part C – Post-Mauryan Regional Powers (Q51 – 75)

    Q51. The Indo-Greeks ruled mainly in:
    (A) Eastern India
    (B) North-west India
    (C) Deccan
    (D) South India
    Answer: (B)

    Q52. Menander (Milinda) was converted to Buddhism by:
    (A) Kautilya
    (B) Nagasena
    (C) Ashvaghosha
    (D) Upagupta
    Answer: (B)

    Q53. Founder of Shunga dynasty:
    (A) Pushyamitra Shunga
    (B) Vasumitra
    (C) Brihadratha
    (D) Ajatasatru
    Answer: (A)

    Q54. Pushyamitra revived:
    (A) Jainism
    (B) Brahmanism and Vedic sacrifices
    (C) Mahayana Buddhism
    (D) Shaivism alone
    Answer: (B)

    Q55. Satavahanas ruled in:
    (A) North India
    (B) Deccan (Andhra–Maharashtra)
    (C) Bengal
    (D) Kashmir
    Answer: (B)

    Q56. Most famous Satavahana ruler:
    (A) Simuka
    (B) Gautamiputra Satakarni
    (C) Pulamayi II
    (D) Yajna Satakarni
    Answer: (B)

    Q57. Satavahana inscriptions are in:
    (A) Sanskrit
    (B) Prakrit
    (C) Tamil
    (D) Pali
    Answer: (B)

    Q58. Capital of Satavahanas:
    (A) Pratishthana (Paithan)
    (B) Taxila
    (C) Kanchi
    (D) Madurai
    Answer: (A)

    Q59. Kushana ruler who convened Fourth Buddhist Council:
    (A) Kujula Kadphises
    (B) Kanishka
    (C) Vima Kadphises
    (D) Nahapana
    Answer: (B)

    Q60. The Saka era began in:
    (A) 78 CE
    (B) 57 BCE
    (C) 320 CE
    (D) 273 BCE
    Answer: (A)

    Q61. The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman I is written in:
    (A) Prakrit
    (B) Sanskrit
    (C) Pali
    (D) Greek
    Answer: (B)

    Q62. Kharavela’s achievements are known from:
    (A) Hathigumpha inscription
    (B) Junagadh inscription
    (C) Bharhut inscription
    (D) Sarnath pillar
    Answer: (A)

    Q63. Kharavela was a follower of:
    (A) Buddhism
    (B) Jainism
    (C) Shaivism
    (D) Vaishnavism
    Answer: (B)

    Q64. Sangam literature belongs to:
    (A) Tamil language
    (B) Pali
    (C) Prakrit
    (D) Sanskrit
    Answer: (A)

    Q65. Main Sangam kingdoms were:
    (A) Chera, Chola, Pandya
    (B) Maurya, Gupta, Nanda
    (C) Kushan, Shaka, Satavahana
    (D) Magadha, Kosala, Avanti
    Answer: (A)

    Q66. Port associated with Roman trade in Kerala:
    (A) Kaveripattinam
    (B) Muziris
    (C) Arikamedu
    (D) Tamralipti
    Answer: (B)

    Q67. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes:
    (A) Indian religions
    (B) Indo-Roman trade
    (C) Gupta administration
    (D) Buddhist doctrines
    Answer: (B)

    Q68. Major export to Rome:
    (A) Gold
    (B) Spices and textiles
    (C) Weapons
    (D) Horses
    Answer: (B)

    Q69. Mahayana Buddhism emerged under:
    (A) Ashoka
    (B) Kanishka
    (C) Harsha
    (D) Menander
    Answer: (B)

    Q70. Gandhara art shows influence of:
    (A) Persian art
    (B) Greek art
    (C) Chinese art
    (D) Egyptian art
    Answer: (B)

    Q71. Mathura school used which stone?
    (A) Marble
    (B) Red sandstone
    (C) Granite
    (D) Black basalt
    Answer: (B)

    Q72. Amaravati school flourished in:
    (A) Tamil Nadu
    (B) Andhra Pradesh
    (C) Kashmir
    (D) Punjab
    Answer: (B)

    Q73. The Junagadh inscription records repairs of:
    (A) Canal of Ashoka
    (B) Sudarshana Lake
    (C) Barabar Caves
    (D) Nalanda Monastery
    Answer: (B)

    Q74. Satavahana coins often carry:
    (A) Greek legends
    (B) Both Prakrit and regional inscriptions
    (C) Persian language
    (D) Only Sanskrit
    Answer: (B)

    Q75. Indo-Roman trade brought into India:
    (A) Silver bullion
    (B) Gold coins of Roman emperors
    (C) Slaves
    (D) Grain
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part D – Gupta & Vakataka Age (Q76 – 90)

    Q76. Founder of Gupta dynasty:
    (A) Chandragupta I
    (B) Samudragupta
    (C) Chandragupta II
    (D) Sri Gupta
    Answer: (D)

    Q77. The title “Maharajadhiraja” was first assumed by:
    (A) Samudragupta
    (B) Chandragupta I
    (C) Skandagupta
    (D) Harsha
    Answer: (B)

    Q78. Samudragupta’s conquests are recorded in:
    (A) Sanchi Inscription
    (B) Allahabad Pillar Inscription
    (C) Junagadh Inscription
    (D) Bhitari Inscription
    Answer: (B)

    Q79. Chandragupta II defeated which western rulers?
    (A) Indo-Greeks
    (B) Sakas (Western Kshatrapas)
    (C) Kushanas
    (D) Satavahanas
    Answer: (B)

    Q80. The Gupta Age is called the “Golden Age” because of:
    (A) Political expansion only
    (B) Advances in art, literature, and science
    (C) Religious wars
    (D) Trade with Rome
    Answer: (B)

    Q81. The chief gold coin of Guptas was called:
    (A) Karsapana
    (B) Dinar
    (C) Tanka
    (D) Pana
    Answer: (B)

    Q82. The Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is:
    (A) Dravida style
    (B) Early Nagara style
    (C) Vesara style
    (D) Gandhara style
    Answer: (B)

    Q83. The famous Sanskrit poet Kalidasa flourished under:
    (A) Ashoka
    (B) Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
    (C) Harsha
    (D) Kanishka
    Answer: (B)

    Q84. Aryabhata was a:
    (A) Poet
    (B) Astronomer and Mathematician
    (C) Philosopher
    (D) Physician
    Answer: (B)

    Q85. Aryabhata’s work:
    (A) Brihat Samhita
    (B) Aryabhatiya
    (C) Surya Siddhanta
    (D) Charaka Samhita
    Answer: (B)

    Q86. Varahamihira authored:
    (A) Brihat Samhita
    (B) Ashtadhyayi
    (C) Mricchakatika
    (D) Mudrarakshasa
    Answer: (A)

    Q87. Medical science during Gupta Age was represented by:
    (A) Sushruta and Charaka
    (B) Patanjali
    (C) Aryabhata
    (D) Vasumitra
    Answer: (A)

    Q88. Gupta land grants were usually recorded on:
    (A) Palm leaves
    (B) Copper plates
    (C) Stone pillars
    (D) Clay seals
    Answer: (B)

    Part D (continued) & Part E — Gupta decline, Harsha, Deccan Powers (Q89–Q100)

    Q89. The dynasty that dealt the final blow to the Gupta power in the north was:
    (A) Huns (Hephthalites)
    (B) Sakas
    (C) Kushanas
    (D) Satavahanas
    Answer: (A)
    Explanation: The Huna (Hephthalite) invasions in the late 5th–6th centuries weakened Gupta power and contributed to its disintegration.

    Q90. Skandagupta is remembered for:
    (A) Patronizing Kalidasa
    (B) Defeating the Hunas and restoring Gupta authority temporarily
    (C) Introducing the Saka era
    (D) Building the Sarnath stupa
    Answer: (B)
    Explanation: Skandagupta fought Huna invasions and other internal challenges, preserving Gupta rule for a while.

    Q91. Harsha’s court poet and biographer was:
    (A) Kalidasa
    (B) Bana (Banabhatta)
    (C) Harisena
    (D) Varahamihira
    Answer: (B)
    Explanation: Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita, a principal source for Harsha’s life and times.

    Q92. Harsha shifted his capital to:
    (A) Pataliputra
    (B) Kanchipuram
    (C) Kannauj
    (D) Ujjain
    Answer: (C)
    Explanation: Kannauj became Harsha’s political and cultural center in northern India.

    Q93. Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited India during Harsha’s reign and described:
    (A) The decline of Buddhism everywhere
    (B) A flourishing Buddhist patronage and Harsha’s liberality toward religion
    (C) Harsha’s conversion to Islam
    (D) The rise of Saka power in the Deccan
    Answer: (B)
    Explanation: Xuanzang praises Harsha’s patronage of Buddhism and records institutional details like Nalanda.

    Q94. Harsha’s empire failed to establish long-term unity because:
    (A) He faced strong southern empires like the Chalukyas and Pulakesin II
    (B) Harsha had no army
    (C) He refused to hold court at Kannauj
    (D) He converted to Jainism late in life
    Answer: (A)
    Explanation: Southern powers (e.g., Pulakesin II of the Chalukyas) checked northern expansion; Harsha lacked permanent administrative structures to create durable empire.

    Q95. The Salankayanas and Vishnukundins were primarily located in:
    (A) Western India (Gujarat)
    (B) Coastal and inland Andhra region (Deccan)
    (C) Northern Punjab
    (D) Sri Lanka
    Answer: (B)
    Explanation: These dynasties ruled parts of Andhra/Telangana and played important roles in Deccan polity and culture.

    Q96. The Salankayanas are noted for:
    (A) Patronage of Prakrit drama in Mathura
    (B) Early inscriptions in Telugu-Prakrit and regional administration in Andhra
    (C) Founding the Gupta dynasty
    (D) Invading Rome
    Answer: (B)
    Explanation: Salankayana epigraphs reflect local administration and give early evidence of regional linguistic-cultural developments.

    Q97. Vishnukundin rulers are credited with:
    (A) Establishing the Kalinga empire
    (B) Promoting temple-building and Vaishnavite cults in Andhra-Telangana
    (C) Creating the Mauryan bureaucracy
    (D) Patronizing Greek art
    Answer: (B)
    Explanation: The Vishnukundins supported temple architecture and Brahmanical cultural growth in the region.

    Q98. Which of the following best describes Gupta-era land grants?
    (A) They were never given to Brahmanas
    (B) Copper-plate charters recording tax-free grants (agrahara, brahmadeya) became common
    (C) Grants were oral only, with no records
    (D) Land grants were always permanent royal holdings and never transferable
    Answer: (B)
    Explanation: Gupta and post-Gupta rulers issued copper-plate grants documenting land assignments and privileges for Brahmanas and institutions.

    Q99. The notable literary work Harshacharita is a:
    (A) Medical treatise
    (B) Courtly biography and panegyric of Harsha by Banabhatta
    (C) A Buddhist scripture
    (D) A Sangam anthology
    Answer: (B)
    Explanation: Harshacharita (Life of Harsha) by Banabhatta blends biography with poetic panegyric and is a key historical source.

    Q100. One significant long-term consequence of the Gupta–Vakataka and Harsha periods was:
    (A) Collapse of urban life across the subcontinent permanently
    (B) Consolidation of Sanskritic high culture, temple architecture, and developments in science that shaped medieval Indian civilization
    (C) Complete disappearance of Buddhism from India in the 7th century
    (D) Immediate political unity of the entire subcontinent under a single ruler
    Answer: (B)
    Explanation: These periods saw crystallization of Puranic Hinduism, Sanskrit literature, temple-building traditions, and advances in astronomy, medicine and mathematics that influenced later Indian history.

  • UGC NET History Unit-2 From State to Empire (600 BCE – 650 CE)

    Comprehensive Study Notes for UGC NET / SET / UPSC

    I. Rise of Magadha and the First Empire

    1. Background

    After the 6th century BCE, India witnessed:

    • Second urbanization (due to iron technology & agriculture).

    • Rise of Mahajanapadas – 16 major states.

    • Among them, Magadha rose to dominance due to its strategic and economic advantages.

    2. Causes for Rise of Magadha

    Factor Explanation
    Geographical Located in fertile Gangetic plains; rich in iron ore (Rajgir, Gaya region).
    Strategic position Control over trade routes between north and east India.
    Economic Rich agriculture, riverine trade via Ganga and Son.
    Political leadership Strong rulers – Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Shishunaga, Nandas.
    Military strength Standing armies, use of elephants.

    3. Important Dynasties Before Mauryas

    (a) Haryanka Dynasty (Bimbisara & Ajatasatru)

    • Bimbisara (544–492 BCE):

      • Expanded Magadha through conquest and diplomacy.

      • Married Kosalan princess; annexed Anga.

    • Ajatasatru (492–460 BCE):

      • Built fort at Rajagriha.

      • Fought Vaishali (Lichchhavis) – introduced rathamusala (chariot with blades).

    (b) Shishunagas

    • Shifted capital to Vaishali; ended Avanti’s dominance.

    (c) Nandas

    • Mahapadma Nanda extended empire up to Punjab and Deccan.

    • Maintained huge army: 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, 6,000 elephants.

    • Overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya (with Chanakya’s help).

    🟢 II. Greek Invasion and its Impact (327–325 BCE)

    • Alexander’s invasion (327 BCE): entered north-west India via Khyber Pass.

    • Defeated Porus at the Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum).

    • Could not advance beyond Beas due to troop mutiny.

    • Established Greek settlements in north-west.

    Impact:

    1. Opened Indo-Greek contact → trade and cultural exchange.

    2. Stimulated political unification – prepared ground for Mauryan Empire.

    3. Greek historians (Arrian, Megasthenes) provide important historical accounts.

    4. Greek influence on art and coinage (later Gandhara art).

    🟢 III. The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE)

    1. Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BCE)

    • Founded the first pan-Indian Empire.

    • Defeated Nandas with help of Chanakya (Kautilya).

    • Defeated Seleucus Nikator (305 BCE) → Treaty of Chandragupta.

    • Capital: Pataliputra.

    • Appointed Greek ambassador Megasthenes (wrote Indica).

    Administration (as per Arthashastra & Indica):

    • Highly centralized monarchy.

    • Hierarchical bureaucracy: Amatyas (officials), Samaharta (finance), Sannidhata (treasury).

    • Standing army with espionage network.

    2. Bindusara (297–273 BCE)

    • Expanded empire southward (till Mysore).

    • Maintained friendly ties with Syrian king Antiochus I.

    • Greek writers call him “Amitrochates” (Destroyer of foes).

    3. Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE)

    (a) Conquests and Dhamma

    • Won Kalinga War (261 BCE) – massive casualties → adopted Ahimsa and Dhamma (moral law).

    • Dhamma = ethical code promoting tolerance, compassion, truthfulness, non-violence.

    • Sent missionaries (including his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta) to Sri Lanka and other countries.

    (b) Administration

    • Divided empire into provinces (Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri).

    • Appointed Dhamma-Mahamatras to spread ethical conduct.

    (c) Ashokan Edicts

    • Language: Prakrit (Brahmi script); in NW India – Greek and Aramaic.

    • Major Rock Edicts (14) and Minor Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts.

    • Edict XIII describes remorse after Kalinga War.

    • Minor Rock Edict I mentions his personal conversion.

    (d) Art & Architecture

    • Polished stone pillars (Sarnath Lion Capital → National Emblem).

    • Stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut.

    • Use of rock-cut caves (Barabar Hills).

    4. Decline of Mauryan Empire

    Causes:

    1. Weak successors after Ashoka (Dasaratha, Samprati).

    2. Over-centralization of power.

    3. Financial crisis due to vast empire.

    4. Regional revolts (Kalinga, north-west).

    5. Pushyamitra Shunga’s rebellion (185 BCE).

    🟢 IV. Post-Mauryan Period and Regional Powers (200 BCE – 300 CE)

    1. Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks)

    • Ruled NW India after Mauryas.

    • Menander (Milinda) – converted to Buddhism; dialogue in Milindapanho.

    • Introduced portrait coins and Hellenistic art style.

    2. Shungas (185–73 BCE)

    • Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga (a Brahmana general).

    • Revival of Brahmanism and Vedic rituals (Ashvamedha).

    • Patronized art: Bharhut Stupa and additions to Sanchi.

    3. Satavahanas (1st c. BCE – 2nd c. CE)

    • Founded by Simuka in Deccan; capital at Pratishthana (Paithan).

    • Most famous ruler: Gautamiputra Satakarni.

    • Maintained trade with Romans (evident from Roman coins).

    • Practised matrilineal elements (mother’s name in inscriptions).

    • Language: Prakrit; script: Brahmi.

    • Contributed to Amaravati art school.

    4. Kushanas (1st–3rd c. CE)

    • Founded by Kujula Kadphises; most famous: Kanishka.

    • Empire: from Central Asia to Pataliputra.

    • Kanishka’s achievements:

      • Patron of Mahayana Buddhism.

      • Held the Fourth Buddhist Council at Kashmir.

      • Era started in 78 CE (Saka Era).

    • Art & Culture:

      • Gandhara School – Greco-Buddhist style.

      • Use of standing Buddha image.

      • Issued gold coins with Greek, Iranian, and Indian deities.

    5. Sakas / Western Kshatrapas (1st c. BCE – 4th c. CE)

    • Ruled western India (Gujarat & Malwa).

    • Important rulers: Nahapana, Rudradaman I.

    • Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman – earliest Sanskrit inscription; records repairs of Sudarshana Lake.

    • Promoted trade and port cities like Bharuch (Barygaza).

    6. Kharavela of Kalinga (1st c. BCE)

    • Known from Hathigumpha inscription (Udayagiri hills).

    • Patron of Jainism.

    • Repaired canals and promoted art and music.

    7. Sangam Age (300 BCE – 300 CE)

    • Tamilakam (South India) ruled by Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.

    • Sangam literature (Tolkappiyam, Ettuthokai, Pattuppattu) provides data on politics, economy, and society.

      • Cheras: traded with Rome via Muziris (Kerala).

      • Cholas: capital Uraiyur, maritime trade.

      • Pandyas: capital Madurai.

    Society: Patriarchal; warriors, agriculturists, and bards.
    Religion: Worship of Murugan, Korravai, and hero stones (Nadukal).

    8. Trade & Commerce (2nd BCE–3rd CE)

    • Inland and maritime trade flourished.

    • Ports: Bharuch, Sopara, Arikamedu, Tamralipti, Muziris.

    • Roman trade: Gold coins of Augustus, Nero, Trajan found in India.

    • Goods exported: Spices, pearls, textiles, ivory.

    • Goods imported: Wine, coral, gold, glassware.

    • Text: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea details Indo-Roman commerce.

    9. Religious Developments

    • Mahayana Buddhism arose under Kanishka: worship of Buddha as god.

    • Emergence of image worship, Bodhisattva ideals.

    • Bhakti elements began in Hinduism.

    10. Post-Mauryan Art & Architecture

    School Features Region
    Gandhara Greco-Roman style, realistic drapery NW India (Taxila, Peshawar)
    Mathura Indigenous, red sandstone, spiritual expression Northern India
    Amaravati Narrative reliefs, elegance, fluidity Andhra region

    🟢 V. Gupta–Vakataka Age (4th–6th Century CE)

    1. Political History

    • Chandragupta I (320–335 CE) – founder; married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.

    • Samudragupta (335–375 CE) – “Napoleon of India” (as per Allahabad Pillar Inscription).

    • Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya, 375–415 CE) – expanded to western India; patron of Kalidasa.

    • Decline under later Guptas due to Huna invasions.

    2. Administration and Society

    • Monarchy supported by council of ministers.

    • Land grants to Brahmanas and officials (agraharas).

    • Varna system became rigid; women’s position declined.

    • Growth of Puranic Hinduism (Vishnu, Shiva, Devi cults).

    3. Economy

    • Prosperous agrarian base.

    • Land grants recorded on copper plates.

    • Tax system: bhaga (share of produce), bhoga (royal dues).

    • Gupta coins (gold dinars) – finest numismatic art.

    4. Religion & Literature

    • Hindu revival: Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti worship.

    • Buddhism & Jainism continued with royal tolerance.

    • Sanskrit literature:

      • Kalidasa – Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta.

      • Visakhadatta – Mudrarakshasa.

      • Sudraka – Mricchakatika.

      • Amarasimha’s Amarakosha – lexicon.

    5. Science & Technology

    • Aryabhata – Astronomy (Aryabhatiya): rotation of earth, pi value.

    • Varahamihira – Brihat Samhita (astronomy & astrology).

    • Charaka & Sushruta – medicine & surgery.

    • Decimal system and concept of zero developed.

    6. Art & Architecture

    • Beginning of Hindu temple architecture:

      • Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh) – early Nagara style.

    • Ajanta–Ellora caves – Gupta influence.

    • Sculptures of Buddha and Hindu deities in exquisite detail.

    🟢 VI. Harsha and His Times (606–647 CE)

    1. Political History

    • Harshavardhana (606–647 CE) – son of Prabhakaravardhana (Pushyabhuti dynasty).

    • Unified north India after fall of Guptas.

    • Capital: Kannauj.

    • Fought Pulakesin II (Chalukya) – defeated on Narmada.

    • Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited his court (book: Si-Yu-Ki).

    2. Administration and Religion

    • Followed Gupta administrative model.

    • Revenue from agriculture; maintenance of welfare works.

    • Initially a Shaiva, later patronized Mahayana Buddhism.

    • Built Nalanda Monastery and Kannauj assemblies.

    3. Cultural Achievements

    • Patron of literature:

      • Banabhatta – Harshacharita, Kadambari.

      • Mayura, Matanga, Subandhu flourished under him.

    • Last great ruler before Islamic invasions.

    🟢 VII. Deccan Powers: Salankayanas & Vishnukundins (4th–6th c. CE)

    • Salankayanas:

      • Ruled coastal Andhra (3rd–5th c. CE) after Ikshvakus.

      • Capital: Vengi.

      • Patrons of Vedic Brahmanism and Sanskrit.

    • Vishnukundins:

      • Successors of Salankayanas.

      • Extended power to Telangana and Andhra.

      • Promoted Vaishnavism and temple architecture.

    ✅ Summary Table: Unit II in a Nutshell

    Period Dynasty / Empire Key Features
    600–321 BCE Magadha States Political unification
    321–185 BCE Mauryas Centralized empire, Ashokan Dhamma
    200 BCE–300 CE Indo-Greeks, Shungas, Satavahanas, Kushanas Regional kingdoms, trade, art
    300–550 CE Guptas & Vakatakas Golden Age: art, science, literature
    606–647 CE Harsha North Indian unity, Buddhism revival

  • UGC NET History Unit-1 Sources and Early Indian History MCQs

    Part A – Archaeological Sources (Q1–25)

    Q1. Archaeology primarily deals with:
    (A) Written records
    (B) Oral traditions
    (C) Material remains of the past
    (D) Religious texts
    Answer: (C)
    Explanation: Archaeology reconstructs history through material evidence such as tools, pottery, monuments, and artifacts.

    Q2. The systematic survey of an area to locate archaeological sites is called:
    (A) Excavation
    (B) Exploration
    (C) Epigraphy
    (D) Numismatics
    Answer: (B)

    Q3. The scientific method of uncovering buried remains layer by layer is:
    (A) Exploration
    (B) Excavation
    (C) Surveying
    (D) Mapping
    Answer: (B)

    Q4. Stratigraphy helps archaeologists determine:
    (A) The language of inscriptions
    (B) The chronological sequence of layers
    (C) The religious beliefs of people
    (D) The trade routes of ancient times
    Answer: (B)

    Q5. Who is regarded as the “Father of Indian Archaeology”?
    (A) R.D. Banerjee
    (B) Alexander Cunningham
    (C) Mortimer Wheeler
    (D) James Prinsep
    Answer: (B)

    Q6. James Prinsep is famous for:
    (A) Discovering Harappa
    (B) Deciphering the Brahmi script
    (C) Excavating Mohenjo-Daro
    (D) Dating Neolithic sites
    Answer: (B)

    Q7. Epigraphy is the study of:
    (A) Coins
    (B) Pottery
    (C) Inscriptions
    (D) Monuments
    Answer: (C)

    Q8. The earliest deciphered inscriptions in India are those of:
    (A) Chandragupta Maurya
    (B) Ashoka
    (C) Harsha
    (D) Samudragupta
    Answer: (B)

    Q9. The study of coins is known as:
    (A) Paleography
    (B) Numismatics
    (C) Epigraphy
    (D) Stratigraphy
    Answer: (B)

    Q10. The earliest coins in India were:
    (A) Gupta coins
    (B) Indo-Greek coins
    (C) Punch-marked coins
    (D) Roman coins
    Answer: (C)
    Explanation: Punch-marked silver coins appear around 6th century BCE.

    Q11. The earliest evidence of archaeology-based history writing in India began under:
    (A) British rule
    (B) Mughal rule
    (C) Mauryas
    (D) Delhi Sultanate
    Answer: (A)

    Q12. The first Harappan site to be excavated was:
    (A) Mohenjo-Daro
    (B) Lothal
    (C) Harappa
    (D) Dholavira
    Answer: (C)

    Q13. Who excavated Mohenjo-Daro?
    (A) R.D. Banerjee
    (B) Daya Ram Sahni
    (C) Alexander Cunningham
    (D) Stuart Piggott
    Answer: (A)

    Q14. Radiocarbon dating is used to determine:
    (A) Chemical composition
    (B) Age of organic materials
    (C) Metal purity
    (D) Astronomical alignment
    Answer: (B)

    Q15. Thermoluminescence dating is particularly useful for:
    (A) Stone tools
    (B) Iron artifacts
    (C) Pottery and burnt clay
    (D) Gold ornaments
    Answer: (C)

    Q16. Dendrochronology is based on:
    (A) Counting tree rings
    (B) Measuring metal decay
    (C) Fossil analysis
    (D) Radioactive isotopes
    Answer: (A)

    Q17. The Ashokan edicts were engraved mostly in:
    (A) Persian
    (B) Prakrit and Greek
    (C) Sanskrit
    (D) Tamil
    Answer: (B)

    Q18. The Hathigumpha inscription is related to:
    (A) Ashoka
    (B) Kharavela
    (C) Samudragupta
    (D) Rudradaman
    Answer: (B)

    Q19. Which inscription gives a detailed list of Samudragupta’s conquests?
    (A) Mehrauli Iron Pillar
    (B) Allahabad Pillar Inscription
    (C) Hathigumpha Inscription
    (D) Junagadh Inscription
    Answer: (B)

    Q20. Numismatic evidence helps mainly in:
    (A) Religious studies
    (B) Economic and political history
    (C) Linguistics
    (D) Astronomy
    Answer: (B)

    Q21. The author of Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum was:
    (A) John Marshall
    (B) Alexander Cunningham
    (C) James Burgess
    (D) F.W. Thomas
    Answer: (B)

    Q22. The earliest known Indian coins are made of:
    (A) Gold
    (B) Silver
    (C) Copper
    (D) Lead
    Answer: (B)

    Q23. The most scientific method of dating archaeological sites is:
    (A) Radiocarbon dating
    (B) Relative chronology
    (C) Stratigraphy alone
    (D) Typology
    Answer: (A)

    Q24. Exploration and excavation in India are conducted by:
    (A) ASI (Archaeological Survey of India)
    (B) Indian Museum
    (C) Indian Council of Historical Research
    (D) National Archives of India
    Answer: (A)

    Q25. The founder of ASI was:
    (A) Mortimer Wheeler
    (B) Alexander Cunningham
    (C) Daya Ram Sahni
    (D) V.S. Agrawala
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part B – Literary and Foreign Sources (Q26–45)

    Q26. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of:
    (A) Ritual manuals
    (B) Hymns to deities
    (C) Philosophical essays
    (D) Law codes
    Answer: (B)

    Q27. The Vedas are considered:
    (A) Primary literary sources
    (B) Secondary sources
    (C) Secular documents
    (D) Myths only
    Answer: (A)

    Q28. The Tripitakas are associated with:
    (A) Jainism
    (B) Buddhism
    (C) Hinduism
    (D) Ajivikas
    Answer: (B)

    Q29. The Buddhist Jataka stories illustrate:
    (A) Agricultural methods
    (B) Previous lives of Buddha and moral tales
    (C) Political administration
    (D) Sanskrit grammar
    Answer: (B)

    Q30. The Arthashastra is attributed to:
    (A) Manu
    (B) Chanakya (Kautilya)
    (C) Panini
    (D) Kalidasa
    Answer: (B)

    Q31. The Manusmriti is a text dealing with:
    (A) Medicine
    (B) Law and social order
    (C) Astronomy
    (D) Philosophy
    Answer: (B)

    Q32. Panini’s Ashtadhyayi is important for:
    (A) Economy
    (B) Grammar and linguistics
    (C) Political theory
    (D) Mathematics
    Answer: (B)

    Q33. The problem with dating ancient Indian texts arises mainly due to:
    (A) Lack of manuscripts
    (B) Oral transmission over centuries
    (C) Political censorship
    (D) Translation errors
    Answer: (B)

    Q34. Megasthenes wrote:
    (A) Indica
    (B) Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
    (C) Kitab al-Hind
    (D) Geographia
    Answer: (A)

    Q35. The Chinese pilgrim who visited during Harsha’s reign was:
    (A) Fa-Hien
    (B) Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang)
    (C) I-Tsing
    (D) Al-Biruni
    Answer: (B)

    Q36. Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of:
    (A) Harsha
    (B) Ashoka
    (C) Chandragupta II
    (D) Kanishka
    Answer: (C)

    Q37. Al-Biruni came to India with:
    (A) Alexander
    (B) Mahmud of Ghazni
    (C) Ibn Battuta
    (D) Timur
    Answer: (B)

    Q38. Kitab al-Hind is a work on:
    (A) Philosophy
    (B) Indian society and sciences
    (C) Trade routes
    (D) Religious rituals
    Answer: (B)

    Q39. Ibn Battuta was from:
    (A) Persia
    (B) Morocco
    (C) Greece
    (D) Turkey
    Answer: (B)

    Q40. Greek historian who accompanied Alexander was:
    (A) Herodotus
    (B) Arrian
    (C) Ptolemy
    (D) Pliny
    Answer: (B)

    Q41. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives information on:
    (A) Buddhist philosophy
    (B) Roman trade with India
    (C) Vedic rituals
    (D) Gupta polity
    Answer: (B)

    Q42. Indigenous literature refers to:
    (A) Foreign accounts
    (B) Texts written within India
    (C) Inscriptions only
    (D) Translations
    Answer: (B)

    Q43. The Puranas are classified as:
    (A) Vedic hymns
    (B) Secondary religious literature
    (C) Grammar books
    (D) Buddhist chronicles
    Answer: (B)

    Q44. Arthashastra mentions which administrative division?
    (A) District
    (B) Janapada and Vishaya
    (C) Empire and Province
    (D) Gram and Sabha
    Answer: (B)

    Q45. The term “Itihasa” in ancient Indian context refers to:
    (A) Fiction
    (B) History in the form of epics
    (C) Mythology
    (D) Ritual books
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part C – Prehistoric & Protohistoric Cultures (Q46–60)

    Q46. The Neolithic phase is characterized by:
    (A) Nomadic hunting
    (B) Food production and polished tools
    (C) Metal usage
    (D) Writing system
    Answer: (B)

    Q47. The earliest evidence of Neolithic settlement in the subcontinent is found at:
    (A) Koldihwa
    (B) Mehrgarh
    (C) Inamgaon
    (D) Chirand
    Answer: (B)

    Q48. The Neolithic site of Burzahom is located in:
    (A) Kashmir
    (B) Bihar
    (C) Tamil Nadu
    (D) Rajasthan
    Answer: (A)

    Q49. Chalcolithic cultures used:
    (A) Only stone tools
    (B) Copper and stone implements
    (C) Bronze weapons only
    (D) Iron implements
    Answer: (B)

    Q50. The Chalcolithic site Inamgaon is situated in:
    (A) Madhya Pradesh
    (B) Maharashtra
    (C) Rajasthan
    (D) Gujarat
    Answer: (B)

    Q51. The term “Neolithic Revolution” refers to:
    (A) Discovery of fire
    (B) Beginning of agriculture and domestication
    (C) Use of iron
    (D) Writing system
    Answer: (B)

    Q52. The Neolithic people of Koldihwa cultivated:
    (A) Wheat
    (B) Rice
    (C) Cotton
    (D) Barley
    Answer: (B)

    Q53. Chalcolithic pottery was often:
    (A) Grey ware
    (B) Painted ware
    (C) Black ware only
    (D) Plain red ware
    Answer: (B)

    Q54. The economy of Neolithic and Chalcolithic people was based on:
    (A) Trade only
    (B) Agriculture, cattle rearing, and barter exchange
    (C) Industrial production
    (D) Metallurgy alone
    Answer: (B)

    Q55. The term “Megalith” refers to:
    (A) Small beads
    (B) Large stone burial markers
    (C) Painted caves
    (D) Copper tools
    Answer: (B)

    Q56. The South Indian Megalithic culture is known for use of:
    (A) Gold
    (B) Iron
    (C) Bronze
    (D) Silver
    Answer: (B)

    Q57. Evidence of earliest rice cultivation comes from:
    (A) Inamgaon
    (B) Koldihwa
    (C) Lothal
    (D) Navdatoli
    Answer: (B)

    Q58. The site of Daimabad yielded which unique find?
    (A) Stone tools
    (B) Bronze chariot and animals
    (C) Iron sword
    (D) Painted pottery
    Answer: (B)

    Q59. Neolithic sites in northeast India include:
    (A) Chirand
    (B) Daojali Hading
    (C) Inamgaon
    (D) Navdatoli
    Answer: (B)

    Q60. The key difference between Neolithic and Chalcolithic phases was:
    (A) Use of fire
    (B) Use of copper along with stone tools
    (C) Agriculture
    (D) Cattle rearing
    Answer: (B)

    Part D – Indus / Harappan Civilization (Q61–80)

    Q61. The Indus Civilization flourished approximately between:
    (A) 4000–3000 BCE
    (B) 3300–1300 BCE
    (C) 2600–1900 BCE
    (D) 1200–600 BCE
    Answer: (C)
    Explanation: The Mature Harappan Phase (2600–1900 BCE) marks the height of urban development.

    Q62. The Indus Civilization is also known as:
    (A) Aryan Civilization
    (B) Chalcolithic Civilization
    (C) Harappan Civilization
    (D) Neolithic Civilization
    Answer: (C)

    Q63. The first Harappan site discovered was:
    (A) Mohenjo-Daro
    (B) Harappa
    (C) Kalibangan
    (D) Lothal
    Answer: (B)

    Q64. Harappa was excavated by:
    (A) John Marshall
    (B) Daya Ram Sahni
    (C) R.D. Banerjee
    (D) Alexander Cunningham
    Answer: (B)

    Q65. Mohenjo-Daro was excavated by:
    (A) R.D. Banerjee
    (B) Daya Ram Sahni
    (C) John Marshall
    (D) Mortimer Wheeler
    Answer: (A)

    Q66. The largest Harappan site in India is:
    (A) Lothal
    (B) Kalibangan
    (C) Rakhigarhi
    (D) Dholavira
    Answer: (C)

    Q67. The Harappan Civilization covered modern regions of:
    (A) India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka
    (B) Pakistan, northwest India, and parts of Afghanistan
    (C) Central Asia
    (D) South India
    Answer: (B)

    Q68. The town planning of Harappa was based on:
    (A) Circular pattern
    (B) Grid pattern
    (C) Random streets
    (D) Radial layout
    Answer: (B)

    Q69. The Great Bath was discovered at:
    (A) Harappa
    (B) Lothal
    (C) Mohenjo-Daro
    (D) Kalibangan
    Answer: (C)

    Q70. The dockyard of the Harappan Civilization is found at:
    (A) Kalibangan
    (B) Dholavira
    (C) Lothal
    (D) Banawali
    Answer: (C)
    Explanation: Lothal (Gujarat) had a brick dockyard showing maritime trade.

    Q71. The Harappans used which metal extensively?
    (A) Iron
    (B) Copper and bronze
    (C) Aluminium
    (D) Steel
    Answer: (B)

    Q72. Which site has evidence of a “stadium-like” structure?
    (A) Dholavira
    (B) Lothal
    (C) Harappa
    (D) Chanhudaro
    Answer: (A)

    Q73. The script of the Harappans remains:
    (A) Fully deciphered
    (B) Partially deciphered
    (C) Undeciphered
    (D) Borrowed from Sanskrit
    Answer: (C)

    Q74. The common feature of Harappan houses was:
    (A) Wooden walls
    (B) Courtyard with bathrooms and drains
    (C) Stone pillars
    (D) Thatch roofs only
    Answer: (B)

    Q75. Evidence of fire altars and animal sacrifice comes from:
    (A) Lothal and Kalibangan
    (B) Harappa only
    (C) Dholavira
    (D) Chanhudaro
    Answer: (A)

    Q76. The principal material used for Harappan tools was:
    (A) Bronze
    (B) Iron
    (C) Stone
    (D) Steel
    Answer: (A)

    Q77. Which Harappan site provides evidence of double burial?
    (A) Rakhigarhi
    (B) Lothal
    (C) Kalibangan
    (D) Harappa
    Answer: (D)

    Q78. The most common animal depicted on Harappan seals is:
    (A) Bull
    (B) Horse
    (C) Elephant
    (D) Unicorn
    Answer: (D)
    Explanation: The one-horned unicorn motif dominates Indus seals.

    Q79. The Indus economy was primarily:
    (A) Pastoral
    (B) Agricultural and urban-industrial
    (C) Hunting-gathering
    (D) Nomadic
    Answer: (B)

    Q80. The decline of the Indus Civilization is attributed to:
    (A) Invasion only
    (B) Natural and economic factors combined
    (C) Single flood event
    (D) Political revolution
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part E – Vedic and Later Vedic Periods (Q81–90)

    Q81. The Rigveda was composed around:
    (A) 2500 BCE
    (B) 1500–1000 BCE
    (C) 800 BCE
    (D) 500 BCE
    Answer: (B)

    Q82. The main deity of Rigvedic Aryans was:
    (A) Agni
    (B) Varuna
    (C) Indra
    (D) Vishnu
    Answer: (C)

    Q83. The Aryan debate concerns:
    (A) Their religion
    (B) Their racial origin and migration
    (C) Iron usage
    (D) Decline of Harappa
    Answer: (B)

    Q84. Early Vedic society was primarily:
    (A) Urban
    (B) Agricultural
    (C) Pastoral and tribal
    (D) Industrial
    Answer: (C)

    Q85. In the Vedic polity, the king was assisted by two assemblies known as:
    (A) Sabha and Samiti
    (B) Janapada and Parishad
    (C) Gana and Sabha
    (D) Sabha and Mahasabha
    Answer: (A)

    Q86. The Varna system first finds mention in:
    (A) Atharvaveda
    (B) Rigveda (Purusha Sukta)
    (C) Yajurveda
    (D) Upanishads
    Answer: (B)

    Q87. The Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE) witnessed:
    (A) Pastoralism only
    (B) Expansion of agriculture and iron use
    (C) Nomadic migrations
    (D) Decline of kingdoms
    Answer: (B)

    Q88. The Upanishads mainly deal with:
    (A) Ritual sacrifices
    (B) Metaphysical and philosophical ideas
    (C) Warfare
    (D) Agriculture
    Answer: (B)

    Q89. The term Gotra first appears in:
    (A) Rigveda
    (B) Later Vedic texts
    (C) Puranas
    (D) Smritis
    Answer: (B)

    Q90. The introduction of iron in India facilitated:
    (A) Decline of agriculture
    (B) Forest clearing and agrarian expansion
    (C) Urban destruction
    (D) Decline of trade
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part F – Megaliths, Iron Age and Early States (Q91–95)

    Q91. The Megalithic culture is mainly found in:
    (A) South India
    (B) North India
    (C) Central Asia
    (D) Western India
    Answer: (A)

    Q92. Megaliths were primarily used for:
    (A) Religious shrines
    (B) Burial and funerary purposes
    (C) Storage of grain
    (D) Market centers
    Answer: (B)

    Q93. Iron in South India is associated with:
    (A) Harappans
    (B) Megalithic culture
    (C) Mauryan period
    (D) Neolithic settlers
    Answer: (B)

    Q94. The Megalithic people of South India used:
    (A) Painted pottery and iron weapons
    (B) Only stone tools
    (C) Bronze ornaments
    (D) Gold utensils
    Answer: (A)

    Q95. The Iron Age led to the emergence of:
    (A) First urbanization
    (B) Second urbanization and state formation
    (C) Nomadic life
    (D) Cattle herding
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part G – Mahajanapadas and Second Urbanization (Q96–100)

    Q96. The term “Mahajanapada” means:
    (A) Small tribe
    (B) Great territorial state
    (C) Religious sect
    (D) Trading guild
    Answer: (B)

    Q97. The Anguttara Nikaya lists how many Mahajanapadas?
    (A) 10
    (B) 12
    (C) 16
    (D) 18
    Answer: (C)

    Q98. Which among the following was a republican state?
    (A) Magadha
    (B) Kosala
    (C) Vajji
    (D) Kashi
    Answer: (C)

    Q99. The second urbanization in India (c. 600 BCE) was driven by:
    (A) Industrial revolution
    (B) Iron-based agrarian expansion and trade
    (C) Foreign invasions
    (D) Monastic activities
    Answer: (B)

    Q100. The heterodox sect founded by Gautama Buddha emphasized:
    (A) Sacrifices and rituals
    (B) Middle path and self-discipline
    (C) Fatalism
    (D) Luxury and ascetic extremes
    Answer: (B)

  • UGC NET History Unit–1 Sources and Early Indian History

    I. Negotiating the Sources of Ancient Indian History

    To reconstruct India’s early past, historians rely on both archaeological and literary sources.
    Each provides a different type of evidence — material (from the ground) and intellectual (from texts).

    🟣 1. Archaeological Sources

    Archaeology is the study of the material remains of past human life. It helps us understand prehistoric and protohistoric periods where no written records exist.

    (a) Exploration

    • The systematic survey of a region to locate archaeological sites.

    • Helps identify settlement patterns, trade routes, and distribution of cultures.

    • Example: Exploration by Alexander Cunningham, Daya Ram Sahni, and R.D. Banerjee helped locate Harappan sites like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

    (b) Excavation

    • Scientific digging of sites to uncover buried remains.

    • Provides layers (stratigraphy) that reveal chronological sequences.

    • Major excavated sites:

      • Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa (Indus Civilization)

      • Chalcolithic sites – Inamgaon, Navdatoli

      • Neolithic sites – Burzahom, Koldihwa

    (c) Epigraphy

    • Study of inscriptions engraved on stone, metal, wood, or pottery.

    • Provides direct evidence of language, administration, religion, and polity.

    • Examples:

      • Ashokan edicts (3rd century BCE) – earliest deciphered inscriptions.

      • Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela (Odisha).

      • Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta (Gupta period).

    Father of Indian Epigraphy: James Prinsep (deciphered Brahmi script in 1837).

    (d) Numismatics

    • Study of coins. Coins reveal information on economy, polity, trade, art, and religion.

    • Earliest coins: Punch-marked coins (6th century BCE).

    • Later coins bore portraits, deities, and dynastic symbols (e.g., Indo-Greek and Gupta coins).

    (e) Dating of Archaeological Sites

    Techniques used:

    1. Stratigraphy – older layers lie below younger ones.

    2. Radiocarbon (C-14) Dating – measures decay of carbon isotopes (up to 50,000 years).

    3. Thermoluminescence – for pottery and burnt clay.

    4. Dendrochronology – tree-ring dating (limited to wood-based sites).

    🟣 2. Literary Sources

    Literary sources are written texts—religious or secular—that provide insights into beliefs, institutions, and events.
    They are classified into indigenous (Indian) and foreign accounts.

    (a) Indigenous Literature

    i. Primary Literature

    • Texts created in the same period as events described.

    • Example: Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Ashokan edicts.

    ii. Secondary Literature

    • Composed after the events, interpreting or retelling history.

    • Example: Puranas, Itihasas (Ramayana, Mahabharata), Buddhist and Jain chronicles.

    iii. Religious Literature

    • Hindu: Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Epics, Puranas.

    • Buddhist: Tripitakas (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma), Jatakas.

    • Jain: Agamas, Kalpasutra.

    iv. Secular Literature

    • Includes texts on law, polity, science, grammar, and drama.

    • Example:

      • Arthashastra (Kautilya) – politics and economy.

      • Manusmriti – social and legal code.

      • Kalidasa’s plays – court life and society.

      • Panini’s Ashtadhyayi – Sanskrit grammar and social structure.

    v. Myths and Legends

    • Mythical accounts often reflect symbolic truths about social or political order.

    • Example: The story of Purusha Sukta in Rigveda reflects varna hierarchy.

    vi. Problem of Dating

    • Many ancient texts were transmitted orally for centuries before written form.

    • Thus, determining exact dates is difficult (e.g., Vedas dated between 1500–1000 BCE).

    (b) Foreign Accounts

    Foreign travelers and scholars recorded valuable information about Indian polity, economy, and culture.

    Period Visitor Origin Contribution
    4th century BCE Megasthenes Greek Indica – account of Mauryan India
    1st century CE Pliny, Ptolemy Roman Geography, trade routes
    5th century CE Fa-Hien (Faxian) China Gupta-period society and Buddhism
    7th century CE Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) China Harsha’s empire, education, Nalanda
    8th century CE I-Tsing China Buddhist monastic practices
    10th–13th century CE Al-Biruni Persia Kitab al-Hind – scientific study of India
    14th century CE Ibn Battuta Morocco Life in Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign

    These accounts supplement archaeological and literary data, though sometimes biased.

    🟢 II. Prehistoric and Protohistoric India

    🟣 1. Pastoralism and Food Production

    The transition from hunting-gathering to food production marks the Neolithic Revolution (around 7000 BCE onwards).

    (a) Neolithic Phase

    • First evidence: Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, 7000 BCE).

    • Tools: Polished stone axes, microliths, pottery.

    • Settlements: Mud-brick houses; agriculture and animal domestication (cattle, sheep, goats).

    • Sites: Burzahom (Kashmir), Koldihwa (UP), Chirand (Bihar), Daojali Hading (Assam).

    • Economy: Early cultivation of wheat, barley, rice; barter exchange.

    (b) Chalcolithic Phase (Copper-Stone Age)

    • Time: c. 2000–700 BCE.

    • Tools: Copper along with stone implements.

    • Settlements: Permanent villages; storage pits; painted pottery.

    • Major sites:

      • Inamgaon, Daimabad (Maharashtra)

      • Ahar (Rajasthan)

      • Navdatoli (MP)

    • Economy: Agriculture (millets, barley) and animal husbandry; inter-regional trade in copper and beads.

    🟢 III. The Indus / Harappan Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE)

    Origin and Extent

    • Flourished in the northwestern subcontinent – modern Pakistan and western India.

    • Spread over 1.25 million sq. km.

    • Major sites:

      • Harappa (Punjab)

      • Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh)

      • Dholavira (Gujarat)

      • Kalibangan (Rajasthan)

      • Lothal (Gujarat) – dockyard

      • Rakhigarhi (Haryana) – one of the largest sites

    Settlement Pattern

    • Well-planned urban grid system, with streets at right angles.

    • Drainage system, granaries, citadel (administrative center) and lower town (residential).

    • Standardized brick sizes indicate centralized planning.

    Craft Specialization and Economy

    • Crafts: Bead-making, pottery, metalwork, shell and ivory carving.

    • Metals: Copper, bronze, gold, silver.

    • Trade:

      • Internal: Baluchistan, Gujarat, and Punjab regions.

      • External: Mesopotamia, Oman (Magan), Bahrain (Dilmun).

      • Evidence: Seals, weights, and Mesopotamian references to “Meluhha.”

    Religion

    • Seals: Proto-Shiva (Pashupati), Mother Goddess, sacred animals.

    • Fire altars: Found at Kalibangan and Lothal.

    • Absence of temples or idols – religion likely naturalistic and fertility-based.

    Society and Polity

    • Social organization based on urban classes and occupations.

    • Absence of large royal monuments → possible merchant-administrative oligarchy.

    • Uniform weights and seals suggest centralized authority.

    Decline (After 1900 BCE)

    Possible causes:

    1. Environmental degradation and river shifts (e.g., drying of Saraswati).

    2. Floods or earthquakes.

    3. Decline in trade with Mesopotamia.

    4. Gradual desertion, not sudden destruction.

    The Indus Civilization marks the First Urbanization in India.

    🟢 IV. Vedic and Later Vedic Periods (1500–600 BCE)

    1. The Aryan Debates

    • Aryans: Indo-European-speaking pastoralists migrating from Central Asia or the Steppes.

    • Debate: Indigenous vs. Migratory origin (still discussed in modern historiography).

    2. Vedic Literature

    • Rigveda (oldest, c. 1500–1000 BCE) – hymns to gods like Indra, Agni, Varuna.

    • Later Vedic texts (1000–600 BCE): Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Upanishads.

    3. Political and Social Institutions

    Period Features
    Early Vedic Tribal polity; Raja as tribal leader; Sabha and Samiti assemblies
    Later Vedic Emergence of kingdoms (Janapadas); hereditary monarchy; taxation

    4. Theories of the State

    • Divine theory (king as god’s representative).

    • Social contract theory (Mahabharata mentions the people choosing Manu as king).

    • Dandaniti (law and punishment) as means of governance.

    5. Social Stratification

    • Varna system evolved (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra).

    • Gotra system introduced.

    • Patriarchal family with growing private property rights.

    6. Religious and Philosophical Ideas

    • Transition from ritualism (Brahmanas) to philosophical speculation (Upanishads).

    • Idea of Karma, Samsara, Moksha emerged.

    • Worship shifted from nature gods to abstract concepts like Brahman and Atman.

    7. Iron Technology and Megaliths

    • Iron introduced c. 1000 BCE → expansion of agriculture, especially in Ganga valley.

    • Megaliths (South India): Burials marked by large stones; found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala.

      • Evidence of iron use, warrior elites, and complex societies.

    🟢 V. Expansion of State System and Second Urbanization (600–300 BCE)

    1. Mahajanapadas

    • By 6th century BCE, 16 major states (Mahajanapadas) emerged:

      • Monarchies: Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vatsa

      • Republics (Gana-Sanghas): Sakyas, Mallas, Vajji, Kambojas

    Sources: Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, Jain Bhagavati Sutra.

    2. Economic and Social Developments

    • Use of iron ploughs, urban crafts, and surplus agriculture.

    • Punch-marked coins facilitated trade.

    • Rise of merchant guilds (Shrenis).

    • Formation of urban centers like Rajgir, Kaushambi, Ujjain, Vaishali → marks Second Urbanization in India.

    3. Emergence of Heterodox Sects

    (a) Jainism

    • Founded by Mahavira (6th century BCE).

    • Doctrine: Ahimsa, Aparigraha, Anekantavada.

    • Texts: Acharanga Sutra.

    (b) Buddhism

    • Founded by Gautama Buddha (563–483 BCE).

    • Teachings: Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Middle Way.

    • Texts: Tripitakas.

    (c) Ajivikas

    • Believed in Niyati (fate); emphasized strict asceticism.

    • Patronized by Bindusara and Ashoka before conversion.

    These sects challenged Vedic ritualism and Brahmanical orthodoxy, promoting ethics and equality.

    ✅ In Summary

    Theme Key Takeaways
    Sources Archaeology + Literature = Reconstruction of early India
    Prehistory Transition to agriculture (Neolithic, Chalcolithic)
    Indus Civilization Urban planning, trade, and first urbanization
    Vedic Age Aryan society, varna system, iron technology
    Early States Mahajanapadas, economy, heterodox religions
    6th century BCE Second urbanization, rise of Jainism & Buddhism