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Tag: UGC NET History Notes

  • UGC NET History Unit-10 Expected Questions

    National Movement, Independence & Post-Independence India

    Q1. The Indian National Congress was founded in:

    (1) 1885
    (2) 1884
    (3) 1888
    (4) 1890

    Correct Answer: (1) 1885
    Explanation:
    The INC was founded in December 1885 at Bombay, aiming to provide a national platform for political discourse and constitutional reforms.

    Q2. Who presided over the first session of the Indian National Congress?

    (1) A.O. Hume
    (2) W.C. Banerjee
    (3) Surendranath Banerjee
    (4) Dadabhai Naoroji

    Correct Answer: (2) W.C. Banerjee
    Explanation:
    Womesh Chandra Banerjee presided over the first session held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.

    Q3. The Swadeshi movement began as a reaction to:

    (1) Rowlatt Act
    (2) Partition of Bengal
    (3) Jallianwala Bagh massacre
    (4) Simon Commission

    Correct Answer: (2) Partition of Bengal
    Explanation:
    Partition was announced in 1905 by Lord Curzon, leading to mass protests, boycott of foreign goods and national awakening.

    Q4. The political goal of attaining Purna Swaraj was declared at which Congress session?

    (1) Surat, 1907
    (2) Lahore, 1929
    (3) Calcutta, 1928
    (4) Lucknow, 1916

    Correct Answer: (2) Lahore, 1929
    Explanation:
    Under Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress passed the resolution for complete independence and observed 26 January 1930 as Independence Day.

    Q5. The slogan “Do or Die” was given during:

    (1) Civil Disobedience Movement
    (2) Quit India Movement
    (3) Non-Cooperation Movement
    (4) Home Rule Movement

    Correct Answer: (2) Quit India Movement
    Explanation:
    Mahatma Gandhi gave the call in 1942 demanding the immediate end of British rule.

    Q6. Which Committee recommended ‘Basic Education’ or Nai Talim?

    (1) Hunter Committee
    (2) Wood’s Despatch
    (3) Zakir Hussain Committee
    (4) Kothari Commission

    Correct Answer: (3) Zakir Hussain Committee
    Explanation:
    It developed the blueprint of work-centred education favoured by Gandhi.

    Q7. The Cabinet Mission came to India in:

    (1) 1942
    (2) 1946
    (3) 1945
    (4) 1947

    Correct Answer: (2) 1946
    Explanation:
    The mission proposed a united India with a federal structure and grouped provinces, but disagreement led to partition.

    Q8. The Indian Constitution was adopted on:

    (1) 15 August 1947
    (2) 26 November 1949
    (3) 26 January 1950
    (4) 2 October 1950

    Correct Answer: (2) 26 November 1949
    Explanation:
    While enforced on 26 January 1950, it was adopted earlier by the Constituent Assembly.

    Q9. The first five-year plan in India mainly emphasized:

    (1) Heavy industries
    (2) Agriculture and irrigation
    (3) Transport and communication
    (4) Privatization

    Correct Answer: (2) Agriculture and irrigation
    Explanation:
    Based on Harrod-Domar model, it focused on food production and dams like Bhakra-Nangal after partition crisis.

    Q10. The linguistic reorganization of states in India began with the creation of:

    (1) Andhra Pradesh
    (2) Gujarat
    (3) Maharashtra
    (4) Kerala

    Correct Answer: (1) Andhra Pradesh
    Explanation:
    Formed in 1953 after Potti Sriramulu’s hunger strike, it initiated large-scale linguistic reorganization.

    UNIT 10 RECAP

    Key themes of the unit:

    • National movement phases & leadership

    • Ideologies: Moderates, Extremists, Gandhian movements

    • Communalism, nationalism, constitutional reforms

    • Freedom, Partition, Constituent Assembly

    • Independent India: political consolidation, planning, economy, reorganization of states

  • UGC NET History Unit-9 Expected Questions

    Socio–Religious Reform Movements & Cultural Changes in 19th Century India

    Q1. Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha in:

    (1) 1828
    (2) 1830
    (3) 1817
    (4) 1843

    Correct Answer: (1) 1828
    Explanation:
    Brahmo Sabha (later Brahmo Samaj) promoted monotheism, social reform, and fought against practices like sati, idolatry and caste rigidity, marking the beginning of modern reform movements.

    Q2. The Young Bengal movement was led by:

    (1) Henry Vivian Derozio
    (2) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
    (3) Kesub Chandra Sen
    (4) Dayanand Saraswati

    Correct Answer: (1) Henry Vivian Derozio
    Explanation:
    Young Bengal inspired radical rational thinking, freedom, equality, women’s education, and western science among Calcutta students.

    Q3. The principle text of the Arya Samaj is:

    (1) Bhagavad Gita
    (2) Vedas
    (3) Upanishads
    (4) Manusmriti

    Correct Answer: (2) Vedas
    Explanation:
    Dayanand Saraswati declared “Back to the Vedas” as his central doctrine and rejected idol worship and ritualism.

    Q4. The Prarthana Samaj was founded by:

    (1) R. G. Bhandarkar and Atmaram Pandurang
    (2) M. G. Ranade
    (3) Gopal Hari Deshmukh
    (4) Dadabhai Naoroji

    Correct Answer: (1)
    Explanation:
    Prarthana Samaj sought to purify Hinduism and supported widow remarriage, women’s education and abolishing caste inequality.

    Q5. Who declared that “religion is the manifestation of the divinity already in man”?

    (1) Swami Vivekananda
    (2) Debendranath Tagore
    (3) Sri Aurobindo
    (4) Ramkrishna Paramhansa

    Correct Answer: (1) Swami Vivekananda
    Explanation:
    Vivekananda emphasized self-realization, service to humanity and spiritual nationalism, influencing Indian nationalism.

    Q6. The Aligarh Movement was started by:

    (1) Syed Ahmed Khan
    (2) Muhammad Iqbal
    (3) Maulana Azad
    (4) Shibli Numani

    Correct Answer: (1)
    Explanation:
    It promoted modern scientific education among Muslims, founding the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875.

    Q7. Who founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897?

    (1) Swami Dayanand
    (2) Swami Vivekananda
    (3) Keshab Chandra Sen
    (4) Rabindranath Tagore

    Correct Answer: (2)
    Explanation:
    It was based on the teachings of Ramakrishna Paramhansa and aimed at social service, education and spiritual reform.

    Q8. The first law to abolish the practice of Sati was passed under:

    (1) Cornwallis
    (2) Lord Bentinck
    (3) Dalhousie
    (4) John Shore

    Correct Answer: (2) Lord Bentinck
    Explanation:
    Regulation XVII of 1829 abolished sati, largely supported by reformers such as Raja Rammohan Roy.

    Q9. The concept of ‘Sudhi’ (re-conversion) was initiated by:

    (1) Arya Samaj
    (2) Brahmo Samaj
    (3) Prarthana Samaj
    (4) Theosophical Society

    Correct Answer: (1) Arya Samaj
    Explanation:
    Sudhi was intended to reconvert Hindus who had been converted to other religions; a key feature of Dayanand’s ideology.

    Q10. The Veda Samaj was established in:

    (1) Bombay
    (2) Madras
    (3) Poona
    (4) Calcutta

    Correct Answer: (2) Madras
    Explanation:
    Veda Samaj worked for abolition of caste distinctions, widow remarriage, female education and religious reform in South India.

    UNIT 9 RECAP

    Important focus areas:

    • Major reform movements (Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission)

    • Reformers: Rammohan Roy, Vidyasagar, Vivekananda, Dayanand, Syed Ahmed Khan

    • Social legislation and women’s rights

    • Muslim reform movements and Western education

    • Cultural awakening & rise of nationalism

  • UGC NET History Unit-8 Expected Questions

    18th Century India, Advent of Europeans & British Expansion

    Q1. Which of the following was the first European trading company to arrive in India?

    (1) English
    (2) Portuguese
    (3) Dutch
    (4) French

    Correct Answer: (2) Portuguese
    Explanation:
    The Portuguese were the earliest Europeans to reach India for trade. Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut in 1498, establishing early maritime dominance.

    Q2. The Battle of Plassey (1757) was fought between:

    (1) British and French
    (2) British and Marathas
    (3) British and Siraj-ud-Daulah
    (4) British and Hyder Ali

    Correct Answer: (3) British and Siraj-ud-Daulah
    Explanation:
    Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, establishing political control in Bengal and laying the foundation of British rule.

    Q3. The Dual Government in Bengal was introduced by:

    (1) Robert Clive
    (2) Warren Hastings
    (3) Lord Cornwallis
    (4) William Bentinck

    Correct Answer: (1) Robert Clive
    Explanation:
    Clive created a system where the company controlled revenue while the Nawab retained nominal authority. It led to administrative confusion and famine.

    Q4. The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) granted the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the British by:

    (1) Siraj-ud-Daulah
    (2) Shah Alam II
    (3) Shuja-ud-Daula
    (4) Mir Jafar

    Correct Answer: (2) Shah Alam II
    Explanation:
    After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Mughal emperor granted revenue rights to the East India Company, resulting in full economic authority in eastern India.

    Q5. Which of the following battles consolidated British supremacy in India?

    (1) Battle of Plassey
    (2) Battle of Buxar
    (3) Battle of Wandiwash
    (4) Third Battle of Panipat

    Correct Answer: (2) Battle of Buxar
    Explanation:
    Buxar (1764) was fought against the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Shah Alam II. The Company gained political authority and revenue.

    Q6. The system of Subsidiary Alliance was introduced by:

    (1) Lord Dalhousie
    (2) Lord Wellesley
    (3) Lord Hastings
    (4) Lord Cornwallis

    Correct Answer: (2) Lord Wellesley
    Explanation:
    The Indian rulers were forced to accept British troops and dismiss their own forces. It made the states dependent and facilitated territorial expansion.

    Q7. Which act introduced a centralized administrative structure and laid foundation for modern governance?

    (1) Regulating Act, 1773
    (2) Pitt’s India Act, 1784
    (3) Charter Act, 1813
    (4) Indian Councils Act, 1861

    Correct Answer: (1) Regulating Act, 1773
    Explanation:
    It was the first step to regulate Company’s rule and created the Governor-General’s office.

    Q8. The doctrine of lapse was applied first to annex:

    (1) Satara
    (2) Jhansi
    (3) Nagpur
    (4) Awadh

    Correct Answer: (1) Satara
    Explanation:
    Dalhousie refused to accept adopted heirs, beginning with Satara (1848), later followed by Jhansi and Nagpur.

    Q9. Who among the following was defeated in the Third Anglo-Mysore War?

    (1) Tipu Sultan
    (2) Hyder Ali
    (3) Peshwa Baji Rao II
    (4) Shuja-ud-Daula

    Correct Answer: (1) Tipu Sultan
    Explanation:
    In 1792, the Treaty of Seringapatam forced Tipu Sultan to cede half of his territory and give two sons as hostages.

    Q10. Which European power established trading posts at Masulipatnam, Pulicat and Nagapattinam?

    (1) Portuguese
    (2) Dutch
    (3) British
    (4) French

    Correct Answer: (2) Dutch
    Explanation:
    The Dutch East India Company established major trading centers on the Coromandel Coast and dominated spice trade before being defeated by the English.

    UNIT 8 RECAP

    Topics covered:

    • Decline of Mughal power & rise of regional states

    • Entry of European trading companies

    • Carnatic wars, Plassey & Buxar

    • British territorial & administrative expansion

    • Policies: Subsidiary Alliance & Doctrine of Lapse

    • Anglo-Mysore & Anglo-Maratha wars

  • UGC NET History Unit-7 Expected Questions

    Mughal Empire – Administration, Decline & Rise of Regional States

    Q1. The highest administrative department in the Mughal Empire responsible for finance was:

    (1) Diwan-i-Arz
    (2) Diwan-i-Wizarat
    (3) Diwan-i-Insha
    (4) Diwan-i-Khairat

    Correct Answer: (2) Diwan-i-Wizarat
    Explanation:
    The Diwan-i-Wizarat handled imperial finance, land revenue and expenditure. The head of this department was the Wazir, equivalent to a finance minister.

    Q2. The Mughal Zat rank referred to:

    (1) Number of cavalry soldiers to be maintained
    (2) Personal rank and status of a mansabdar
    (3) Classification of agricultural land
    (4) Number of villages allotted to a jagirdar

    Correct Answer: (2)
    Explanation:
    Zat indicated the personal rank of a mansabdar, determining his proximity to the emperor, prestige and salary. Sawarshowed cavalry quota responsibility.

    Q3. The decline of the Mughal Empire accelerated mainly because:

    (1) European invasions
    (2) Weak successors and rise of regional powers
    (3) Drying up of silver supply
    (4) Peasant rebellions

    Correct Answer: (2)
    Explanation:
    After Aurangzeb’s death, regional kingdoms such as Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Rajputs asserted independence, causing fragmentation.

    Q4. The Treaty of Purandar (1665) was signed between:

    (1) Aurangzeb and Shivaji
    (2) Dara Shukoh and Shivaji
    (3) Raja Jai Singh and Shivaji
    (4) Shahjahan and Shahaji Bhonsle

    Correct Answer: (3)
    Explanation:
    After Jai Singh’s siege of Purandar fort, Shivaji accepted Mughal suzerainty temporarily and ceded some forts.

    Q5. Who founded the independent state of Awadh after the decline of the Mughal Empire?

    (1) Murshid Quli Khan
    (2) Alivardi Khan
    (3) Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk
    (4) Asaf Jah I

    Correct Answer: (3)
    Explanation:
    Burhan-ul-Mulk established Awadh as an autonomous regional state in early 18th century.

    Q6. The ruler associated with the policy of Sulh-i-Kul was:

    (1) Akbar
    (2) Humayun
    (3) Jahangir
    (4) Shahjahan

    Correct Answer: (1)
    Explanation:
    Sulh-i-Kul means universal peace and tolerance. Akbar promoted religious harmony and abolished discriminatory taxes.

    Q7. Which Mughal emperor transferred the capital temporarily from Delhi to Agra and built Fatehpur Sikri?

    (1) Humayun
    (2) Akbar
    (3) Jahangir
    (4) Shahjahan

    Correct Answer: (2) Akbar
    Explanation:
    Fatehpur Sikri was constructed as the imperial residence and administrative center between 1571–1585.

    Q8. The administrative term Suba under the Mughals refers to:

    (1) Land tax unit
    (2) Province
    (3) Military regiment
    (4) Agricultural plot

    Correct Answer: (2)
    Explanation:
    The Mughal Empire was divided into subas (provinces), each governed by a Subadar along with revenue and judicial officials.

    Q9. The Sikh leader who turned the Sikh community into a military brotherhood (Khalsa) was:

    (1) Guru Arjun
    (2) Guru Hargobind
    (3) Guru Tegh Bahadur
    (4) Guru Gobind Singh

    Correct Answer: (4)
    Explanation:
    In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa to resist Mughal persecution and assert Sikh autonomy.

    Q10. Who among the following is correctly matched with the kingdom founded after Mughal decline?

    (1) Nizam-ul-Mulk – Bengal
    (2) Murshid Quli Khan – Hyderabad
    (3) Sawai Jai Singh – Marwar
    (4) Saadat Khan – Awadh

    Correct Answer: (4)
    Explanation:
    Saadat Khan founded Awadh; Murshid Quli Khan founded Bengal; and Nizam-ul-Mulk founded Hyderabad.

    UNIT 7 RECAP

    Key concepts from this unit include:

    • Mughal administration: mansabdari, jagirdari, departments, land revenue

    • Mughal decline causes: succession wars, weak rulers, regional rise

    • Emergence of autonomous states: Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad, Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Rajputs

    • Mughal–Maratha relations

    • Akbar’s religious and administrative innovations

  • UGC NET History Unit-6 Expected Questions

    Q1. The earliest Muslim saint to come to India and settle at Multan was:

    (1) Moinuddin Chishti
    (2) Bahauddin Zakariya
    (3) Sheikh Ismail
    (4) Ali Hamadani

    Correct Answer: (3) Sheikh Ismail
    Explanation:
    He is credited as the earliest Sufi to settle in India, preceding organized Sufi orders and serving as a pioneer of early Islamic mysticism in North-West India.

    Q2. Who among the following introduced the practice of Langar in the Sikh tradition?

    (1) Guru Arjun
    (2) Guru Angad
    (3) Guru Nanak
    (4) Guru Amar Das

    Correct Answer: (4) Guru Amar Das
    Explanation:
    Langar (community kitchen) was institutionalised by Guru Amar Das to promote equality beyond caste, creed, or status.

    Q3. The doctrine of Wahdat-ul-Wujud (Unity of Being) was expounded by:

    (1) Al-Hallaj
    (2) Ibn Arabi
    (3) Abdul Qadir Jilani
    (4) Jalaluddin Rumi

    Correct Answer: (2) Ibn Arabi
    Explanation:
    Wahdat-ul-Wujud is a philosophical concept asserting that all existence is a manifestation of the divine. It later influenced the Chishti Sufis in India.

    Q4. The Bhakti movement in South India was led primarily by:

    (1) Nayanars and Alvars
    (2) Siddhas and Sants
    (3) Sufis
    (4) Pasupatas

    Correct Answer: (1) Nayanars and Alvars
    Explanation:
    Nayanars (Shaivite) and Alvars (Vaishnavite) poet-saints initiated intense devotional worship, rejecting ritualism and caste dominance.

    Q5. Who among the following opposed idol worship and caste, and preached universal religion based on love and devotion?

    (1) Vallabhacharya
    (2) Ramananda
    (3) Basavanna
    (4) Kabir

    Correct Answer: (4) Kabir
    Explanation:
    Kabir criticised both Hindu and Muslim orthodoxy and emphasised nirguna bhakti and equality.

    Q6. Which Sufi order in India was known for maintaining close relations with the ruling class and accepting royal grants?

    (1) Chishti
    (2) Suhrawardi
    (3) Qadiri
    (4) Shattari

    Correct Answer: (2) Suhrawardi
    Explanation:
    Unlike Chishtis, Suhrawardis supported state involvement and accepted patronage, strengthening political influence.

    Q7. The Sikh scripture Adi Granth was compiled by:

    (1) Guru Nanak
    (2) Guru Angad
    (3) Guru Amar Das
    (4) Guru Arjun

    Correct Answer: (4) Guru Arjun
    Explanation:
    He compiled hymns of earlier Sikh gurus and saints into the Adi Granth (1604), later revised to Guru Granth Sahib.

    Q8. Ibadat Khana was established by which Mughal ruler?

    (1) Babur
    (2) Humayun
    (3) Akbar
    (4) Jahangir

    Correct Answer: (3) Akbar
    Explanation:
    It was created as a house of worship and philosophical dialogue for scholars of different religions in Fatehpur Sikri.

    Q9. Silsilah in Sufism refers to:

    (1) Mystical meditation technique
    (2) Practice of devotional singing
    (3) Chain of spiritual succession
    (4) Theory of divine intoxication

    Correct Answer: (3) Chain of spiritual succession
    Explanation:
    Silsilah denotes a lineage of Sufi masters transmitting spiritual authority.

    Q10. The term Panchayat referred in medieval Indian villages to:

    (1) A group of five tax collectors
    (2) A community council for resolving disputes
    (3) A religious jury
    (4) A mercenary force

    Correct Answer: (2) A community council for resolving disputes
    Explanation:
    The panchayat supervised welfare, justice and village-level administration.

    UNIT 6 RECAP

    Major themes in this unit:

    • Bhakti movement & major saints

    • Sufi orders and doctrines

    • Sikh movement & Guru lineage

    • Social institutions & caste structure

    • Village and urban society patterns

    • Religious synthesis & cultural interaction

  • UGC NET History Unit-5 Expected Questions

    Q1. The Mansabdari system was introduced by:

    (1) Babur
    (2) Akbar
    (3) Humayun
    (4) Aurangzeb

    Correct Answer: (2) Akbar
    Explanation:
    The Mansabdari system organised the Mughal bureaucracy and army. It fixed rank (mansab) and remuneration based on zat (personal rank) and sawar (cavalry responsibility), ensuring central control over nobles.

    Q2. The Asta Pradhan system was established under:

    (1) Bahamani sultans
    (2) Deccan Sultanates
    (3) Marathas under Shivaji
    (4) Mysore under Haider Ali

    Correct Answer: (3) Marathas under Shivaji
    Explanation:
    Shivaji’s administration included eight ministers collectively called Asta Pradhan, responsible for key departments like foreign affairs, military, finance and justice.

    Q3. The Jagirdari system during the Mughal period refers to:

    (1) Hereditary land ownership
    (2) Assignment of revenue from a region in place of salary
    (3) State-controlled collective farming
    (4) Land given to religious institutions

    Correct Answer: (2) Assignment of revenue from a region in place of salary
    Explanation:
    Nobles were allotted territories from which they collected revenue to maintain troops instead of receiving cash salary from the emperor.

    Q4. Which of the following taxes was levied on the non-Muslim population under the Mughals and Delhi Sultanate?

    (1) Zakat
    (2) Khums
    (3) Jaziya
    (4) Ushr

    Correct Answer: (3) Jaziya
    Explanation:
    Jaziya was a poll tax imposed on non-Muslims in return for protection and exemption from military service. Abolished by Akbar but reintroduced by Aurangzeb.

    Q5. Which Mughal emperor is associated with land revenue reforms and the Ain-i-Dahsalasystem?

    (1) Babur
    (2) Humayun
    (3) Akbar
    (4) Shahjahan

    Correct Answer: (3) Akbar
    Explanation:
    Dahsala, developed by Raja Todar Mal, assessed land revenue based on 10-year average productivity and classification of land, leading to efficient agrarian administration.

    Q6. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were taxes collected by:

    (1) Bahamanis
    (2) Vijayanagara kings
    (3) Deccan Sultanates
    (4) Marathas

    Correct Answer: (4) Marathas
    Explanation:
    Chauth was 25% of revenue, and Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levied by Maratha chiefs over areas outside their direct control.

    Q7. The principal market controller in the Delhi Sultanate was:

    (1) Diwan-i-Wizarat
    (2) Diwan-i-Arz
    (3) Shahna-i-Mandi
    (4) Sadr-us-Sudur

    Correct Answer: (3) Shahna-i-Mandi
    Explanation:
    Shahna-i-Mandi supervised markets, fixing prices and preventing hoarding, particularly under Alauddin Khalji’s economic reforms.

    Q8. The main reason for large-scale urbanization during the Sultanate and Mughal period was:

    (1) Growth of trade and crafts
    (2) Increase in temple building
    (3) Decline of agriculture
    (4) Internal wars

    Correct Answer: (1) Growth of trade and crafts
    Explanation:
    Commercial centres, craft guilds, and administrative hubs emerged due to strong trade networks and manufacturing industries (textiles, metalwork, paper, shipbuilding).

    Q9. Hundi used in medieval India functioned as:

    (1) Land measurement tool
    (2) Military record
    (3) Bill of exchange
    (4) Religious grant record

    Correct Answer: (3) Bill of exchange
    Explanation:
    It enabled long-distance commercial transactions, banking credit and cash transfer, widely used by merchant guilds and moneylenders.

    Q10. The major industry that dominated the economy of the Mughal period was:

    (1) Shipbuilding
    (2) Cotton textiles
    (3) Iron metallurgy
    (4) Glass production

    Correct Answer: (2) Cotton textiles
    Explanation:
    Indian cotton cloth was exported globally, especially to West Asia and Europe, forming the backbone of Mughal overseas trade.

    UNIT 5 RECAP

    Topics covered in this unit include:

    • Administration under Sultanate & Mughals

    • Mansabdari & Jagirdari systems

    • Frontier policies and inter-state relations

    • Agricultural revenue system & irrigation

    • Urbanisation & craft production

    • Trade, transport, banking instruments (Hundi)

    • Maratha administration

  • UGC NET History Unit-4 Expected Questions

    Q1. The rate of discount charged on payments made through Hundi during medieval India was known as:

    (1) Anth
    (2) Foṭa
    (3) Do-dāmi
    (4) Satārahi

    Correct Answer: (4) Satārahi
    Explanation:
    Hundi was a credit/transfer instrument used by merchants. The fee or discount charged on its encashment was called Satārahi, indicating the maturity rate in commercial transactions.

    Q2. Match List-I with List-II regarding the artisans engaged in construction:

    List-I (Artisans) List-II (Work field)
    (a) Ahakpuzan (i) Brick layer
    (b) Khishtmalan (ii) Lime burners
    (c) Parchinkar (iii) Engraver
    (d) Surkhikob (iv) Pounder

    Options:
    (1) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
    (2) (ii), (iii), (iv), (i)
    (3) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
    (4) (iv), (i), (ii), (iii)

    Correct Answer: (4)
    Explanation:
    Medieval building activity involved highly skilled workers such as lime-burners, engravers, and brick-layers. These job titles reflect specialization in urban architectural development.

    Q3. “Of all the sovereigns of the House of Taimur, none since Sikandar Lodi was so distinguished for devotion, austerity and justice as him.”

    The above remark praises:
    (1) Akbar
    (2) Jahangir
    (3) Shahjahan
    (4) Aurangzeb

    Correct Answer: (4) Aurangzeb
    Explanation:
    Contemporary chroniclers admired Aurangzeb for strict adherence to Islamic law, justice, and personal austerity.

    Q4. Who founded the Khalji dynasty in Delhi Sultanate?

    (1) Jalal-ud-din Khalji
    (2) Alauddin Khalji
    (3) Mubarak Shah
    (4) Qutbuddin Mubarak

    Correct Answer: (1) Jalal-ud-din Khalji
    Explanation:
    Jalal-ud-din established the Khalji dynasty in 1290 CE after overthrowing the last ruler of the Mamluk dynasty.

    Q5. Which Sultan attempted to shift the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad?

    (1) Balban
    (2) Alauddin Khalji
    (3) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
    (4) Firuz Tughlaq

    Correct Answer: (3) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
    Explanation:
    This experiment was part of his administrative innovations but resulted in hardship, leading to its reversal.

    Q6. The institution of Iqta during the Sultanate period refers to:

    (1) A hereditary landholding
    (2) Revenue assignment in lieu of salary
    (3) Trading license
    (4) Land gifted to temple institutions

    Correct Answer: (2) Revenue assignment in lieu of salary
    Explanation:
    Iqta was granted to nobles and military officers to collect revenue instead of receiving cash salary.

    Q7. Which Sultan abolished the practice of hereditary appointment to offices and introduced daghand chehra system in the army?

    (1) Iltutmish
    (2) Balban
    (3) Alauddin Khalji
    (4) Firuz Tughlaq

    Correct Answer: (3) Alauddin Khalji
    Explanation:
    Dagh (branding horses) and chehra (soldier description register) stopped corruption and ensured loyalty.

    Q8. The main reason for the decline of the Delhi Sultanate was:

    (1) Mongol invasions
    (2) Rise of provincial kingdoms
    (3) Weak successors and internal conflicts
    (4) Economic bankruptcy

    Correct Answer: (3) Weak successors and internal conflicts
    Explanation:
    After Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and Firuz Tughlaq, constant factionalism among nobles weakened the Sultanate.

    Q9. Who among the following was the author of Tarikh-i-Firozshahi?

    (1) Amir Khusrau
    (2) Ziauddin Barani
    (3) Minhaz-us-Siraj
    (4) Shams-i-Siraj Afif

    Correct Answer: (4) Shams-i-Siraj Afif
    Explanation:
    He documented the reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq and administrative reforms.

    Q10. Which medieval institution served as a record room and administrative archive?

    (1) Pothis
    (2) Daftar-khana
    (3) Dastur-ul-Amal
    (4) Akhbarat

    Correct Answer: (2) Daftar-khana
    Explanation:
    It functioned as an official bureau where farmaans, reports, and state orders were stored and processed.

    UNIT 4 RECAP

    Key coverage:

    • Medieval historical sources: chronicles, inscriptions, foreign travelers, daftar records

    • Delhi Sultanate political developments

    • Key administrative reforms

    • Decline of Sultanate

    • Economic and military systems

  • UGC NET History Unit-3 Expected Questions

    Q1. Arrange the following inscriptions in the chronological order:

    (a) Allahabad Pillar Inscription
    (b) Aihole Inscription
    (c) Halmidi Inscription
    (d) Hathigumpha Inscription

    Options:
    (1) (a), (b), (d), (c)
    (2) (d), (a), (c), (b)
    (3) (c), (d), (b), (a)
    (4) (d), (a), (b), (c)

    Correct Answer: (4) (d), (a), (b), (c)
    Explanation:

    • Hathigumpha (Kharavela) – 1st century BCE

    • Allahabad Pillar (Samudragupta) – 4th century CE

    • Aihole (Pulakesin II by Ravikirti) – 634 CE

    • Halmidi (Earliest Kannada inscription) – 7th century CE

    Q2. In the Early Medieval period, which model was used to explain the process of state formation in South India?

    (1) Feudal Model
    (2) Segmentary Model
    (3) Integrative Model
    (4) Oriental Despotism

    Correct Answer: (2) Segmentary Model
    Explanation:
    Burton Stein applied the segmentary state model to describe Chola rule, arguing multiple layers of authority and ritual sovereignty.

    Q3. Match the artisans engaged in construction with their modern work field

    | List – I (Artisans) | List – II (Modern meaning) |
    |—|—|
    | (a) Ahakpuzan | (i) Bricklayer |
    | (b) Khishtmalan | (ii) Engraver |
    | (c) Parchinkar | (iii) Pounder |
    | (d) Surkhikob | (iv) Lime burners |

    Options:
    (1) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
    (2) (ii), (iii), (iv), (i)
    (3) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
    (4) (iv), (i), (ii), (iii)

    Correct Answer: (4)
    Explanation:
    These artisan roles reflect specialization in medieval building activities.

    Q4. Who among the following historians questioned the centralized nature of medieval Indian state?

    (a) Burton Stein
    (b) Douglas Streusand
    (c) J.F. Richards
    (d) Frank Perlin

    Options:
    (1) (a), (b) and (c)
    (2) (a), (c) and (d)
    (3) (a), (b) and (d)
    (4) All of the above

    Correct Answer: (4) All of the above
    Explanation:
    All these historians challenged the view of an all-powerful medieval Indian state and argued for distributed power.
    Referenced in uploaded question

    Q5. Which one of the following inscriptions praises the justice of Aurangzeb?

    (1) Akbar
    (2) Jahangir
    (3) Shahjahan
    (4) Aurangzeb

    Correct Answer: (4) Aurangzeb
    Explanation:
    Khafi Khan commended Aurangzeb for justice and personal conduct.

    Q6. Which of the following kingdoms belonged to Eastern India in the Early Medieval period?

    (1) Maitrakas
    (2) Palas
    (3) Gurjara-Pratiharas
    (4) Paramaras

    Correct Answer: (2) Palas
    Explanation:
    Palas ruled eastern India (Bengal and Bihar). 

    Q7. The earliest known manuscript written on paper was:

    (1) Shatapatha Brahmana – 1089 CE – Kashmir
    (2) Chachnama – 11th century – Sind
    (3) Kalhan’s Rajatarangini – 1149 CE – Kashmir
    (4) Tarikh-i-Baihaqi – Ghazni

    Correct Answer: (2) Chachnama – 11th century – Sind
    Explanation:
    Recognized as earliest paper manuscript in India.

    UNIT 3 REVISION POINTS (SYLLABUS)

    Based on official syllabus material uploaded:

    • Rise of regional states (Deccan, South, North, East, West)

    • Political features of early medieval India

    • Segmentary / Feudal / Integrative models

    • Trade, agriculture & social hierarchy

  • UGC NET History Unit-2 Expected Questions

    Q1. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Sakyas had built a stupa over the bodily remains of Gautama Buddha at:

    (1) Lumbini
    (2) Nigliva
    (3) Piprahwa
    (4) Sahet-Mahet

    Correct Answer: (3) Piprahwa
    Explanation:
    Piprahwa (U.P.) revealed a stupa containing a reliquary with inscriptions referring to Buddha’s relics, confirming that Sakyas built the stupa there.

    Q2. Which of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched?

    (Ancient city) — (Location)
    (1) Pushkalavati – Charasadda
    (2) Sakala – Sialakota
    (3) Tamralipti – Tamluk
    (4) Tagara – Deccan

    Correct Answer: (2) Sakala – Sialakota
    Explanation:
    Sakala refers to Sialkot, not Sialakota.

    Q3. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer.

    | List-I (Rulers) | List-II (Dynasty) |
    |—|—|
    | (a) Menander | (i) Saka |
    | (b) Azes | (ii) Indo-Greek |
    | (c) Lohana | (iii) Satavahana |
    | (d) Gautamiputra Satakarni | (iv) Nahapana |

    Options:
    (1) (ii), (i), (iv), (iii)
    (2) (iv), (ii), (iii), (i)
    (3) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
    (4) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)

    Correct Answer: (1)
    Explanation:
    Menander – Indo-Greek; Azes – Saka ruler; Lohana – Nahapana; Gautamiputra Satakarni – Satavahana king.

    Q4. Who among the following questioned the Mauryan centralized bureaucracy by advocating a segmentary model of polity?

    (1) R.S. Sharma
    (2) Burton Stein
    (3) D.D. Kosambi
    (4) Romila Thapar

    Correct Answer: (2) Burton Stein
    Explanation:
    Stein developed the Segmentary State theory, arguing that politico-administrative control weakened beyond the center.

    Q5. The Ashokan inscriptions were written in which script mainly in North-West India?

    (1) Brahmi
    (2) Tamil–Brahmi
    (3) Kharosthi
    (4) Gupta-Brahmi

    Correct Answer: (3) Kharosthi
    Explanation:
    North-West Ashokan inscriptions employ Kharosthi under Indo-Greek cultural influence.

    Q6. With which ruler is Hathigumpha inscription associated?

    (1) Kharavela
    (2) Menander
    (3) Rudradaman
    (4) Gautamiputra Satakarni

    Correct Answer: (1) Kharavela
    Explanation:
    It records military expeditions and public works by Jain King Kharavela of Kalinga.

    Q7. The correct chronological order of Post-Mauryan dynasties is:

    (a) Sungas
    (b) Satavahanas
    (c) Indo-Greeks
    (d) Kushanas

    Options:
    (1) (a), (c), (b), (d)
    (2) (a), (b), (c), (d)
    (3) (c), (a), (b), (d)
    (4) (a), (c), (d), (b)

    Correct Answer: (1) (a), (c), (b), (d)
    Explanation:
    Sequence: Sungas → Indo-Greeks → Satavahanas → Kushanas after Mauryan decline.

    Q8. Which ruler issued coins with the image of Buddha, indicating rise of Mahayana influence?

    (1) Nahapana
    (2) Menander
    (3) Kanishka
    (4) Rudradaman

    Correct Answer: (3) Kanishka
    Explanation:
    Kanishka of Kushan dynasty promoted Mahayana Buddhism, minted coins with Buddha’s figure, and convened the Fourth Buddhist Council.

    Q9. Excavations at which site show the earliest evidence of stone-fortification in India?

    (1) Taxila
    (2) Rajgir
    (3) Pataliputra
    (4) Sisupalgarh

    Correct Answer: (4) Sisupalgarh
    Explanation:
    Sisupalgarh fortification belongs to 3rd century BCE and is considered one of the earliest surviving city defenses.

    Q10. Which Buddhist Council led to division into Hinayana and Mahayana?

    (1) First Council – Rajgir
    (2) Second Council – Vaishali
    (3) Third Council – Pataliputra
    (4) Fourth Council – Kashmir

    Correct Answer: (2) Second Council – Vaishali
    Explanation:
    Internal disputes on monastic discipline resulted in Sthaviravadins vs Mahasanghikas, the beginning of doctrinal splits.

    UNIT-2 Revision Points (as per the Syllabus)

    • Rise of Magadha – Factors, dynasties

    • Alexander’s invasion & impact

    • Mauryan polity, economy, Ashoka’s Dhamma, Art & architecture

    • Decline of Mauryan empire

    • Sungas, Satavahanas, Kushanas, Sakas & Indo-Greeks

    • Emergence of Mahayana, trade with Roman world

    • Gandhara, Mathura & Amaravati art schools

  • UGC NET History Unit-1 Expected Questions

    UNIT – 1 : MCQs with Solutions and Explanations

    Q1. Which of the following pre-historic sites is known for the mass production of microliths?

    (1) Adamgarh
    (2) Bagor
    (3) Nalagonda
    (4) Sanganakallu

    Correct Answer: (2) Bagor
    Explanation:
    Bagor (Rajasthan) is a major microlithic site showing large-scale production of small stone blades used as tools. It represents a Late Stone Age culture with early domestication evidence.
    This exact question appears in the uploaded paper

    Q2. Which of the following objects are known from the Copper-Hoard sites?

    (a) Anthropomorphic figures
    (b) Antennae swords
    (c) Harpoons
    (d) Flat Celts

    Code:
    (1) (a), (b) and (c)
    (2) (b), (c) and (d)
    (3) (a), (c) and (d)
    (4) (a), (b), (c) and (d)

    Correct Answer: (4) (a), (b), (c) and (d)
    Explanation:
    Copper hoards of the Ganga-Yamuna region contain diverse tools and weapons including anthropomorphic figures, antennae-hilted swords, harpoons and flat celts indicating technological improvement in Chalcolithic India.

    .

    Q3. Archaeological sites providing evidence about water management by Harappans include:

    (a) Dholavira
    (b) Mohenjodaro
    (c) Harappa
    (d) Kalibangan

    Options:
    (1) (a) and (b)
    (2) (b) and (c)
    (3) (c) and (d)
    (4) (a) and (c)

    Correct Answer: (1) (a) and (b)
    Explanation:
    Dholavira shows advanced water reservoirs and dams, while Mohenjodaro reveals drainage systems and a Great Bath, demonstrating civic planning and hydraulic engineering.
    Retrieved from uploaded question

    Q4. Which of the following Janas are mentioned in the Rigveda?

    (a) Yadu
    (b) Puru
    (c) Chedi
    (d) Matsya

    Options:
    (1) (a) and (b)
    (2) (b) and (c)
    (3) (c) and (d)
    (4) (a), (b), (c) and (d)

    Correct Answer: (4) (a), (b), (c) and (d)
    Explanation:
    Rigveda mentions many early tribes including Yadu, Puru, Chedi and Matsya, who fought for control over the Saraswati-Sindhu region.

    .

    Q5. The important official next to the king during the Vedic age was:

    (1) Govikartana
    (2) Purohita
    (3) Queen
    (4) Senani

    Correct Answer: (2) Purohita
    Explanation:
    Purohita (royal priest) was the closest advisor to the king, especially in religious and political matters. He performed sacrifices and legitimised kingship. 

    .

    Q6. Which among the following Samskaras were pre-natal?

    (a) Garbhadhana
    (b) Pumsavana
    (c) Simantonnayana
    (d) Sahadharma-Charini-Samyoga

    Options:
    (1) (a), (b), (c)
    (2) (b), (c), (d)
    (3) (a), (c)
    (4) (a) and (d)

    Correct Answer: (1) (a), (b), (c)
    Explanation:
    These three samskaras relate to conception, protection of embryo and mental health of mother before birth. 

    Q7. Which Harappan sites are located in Baluchistan?

    (i) Dabarkot
    (ii) Sotkakhoh
    (iii) Sutkagendor
    (iv) Shortughai

    Code:
    (1) (i) and (iv)
    (2) (ii) and (iv)
    (3) (i), (ii) and (iii)
    (4) (ii), (iii) and (iv)

    Correct Answer: (3) (i), (ii) and (iii)
    Explanation:
    Dabarkot, Sotkakhoh and Sutkagendor lie in Baluchistan, while Shortughai is in Afghanistan.
    Repeated PYQ

    .

    Unit 1 Coverage Summary

    Based on uploaded syllabus

    , Unit 1 covers:

    • Sources: Archaeological, epigraphic, numismatic & literary

    • Prehistoric societies: Neolithic & Chalcolithic

    • Indus Valley Civilization

    • Vedic Age & tribal polities

    • Mahajanapadas & 2nd urbanisation

  • UGC NET History Unit-10 HISTORICAL METHOD, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & HISTORIOGRAPHY MCQs

    🏛️ A. Meaning, Scope & Objectivity in History

    1. The word “History” is derived from which Greek term?

    A) Historia
    B) Historica
    C) Historiographia
    D) Historium

    Answer: A
    Explanation: The Greek word Historia means “inquiry” or “investigation.”

    2. Who is known as the “Father of History”?

    A) Herodotus
    B) Aristotle
    C) Thucydides
    D) Tacitus

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Herodotus (5th century BCE) wrote Histories — earliest systematic record of human events.

    3. Who called history “Philosophy teaching by examples”?

    A) Cicero
    B) Aristotle
    C) Livy
    D) Machiavelli

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Roman philosopher Cicero defined history as a moral guide that teaches lessons through examples.

    4. The primary function of history is to:

    A) Preserve legends
    B) Study the past objectively
    C) Promote myths
    D) Defend religion

    Answer: B
    Explanation: History aims to understand the human past through facts, evidence, and interpretation.

    5. Objectivity in history means:

    A) Neutral and evidence-based interpretation
    B) Religious justification
    C) Personal imagination
    D) National glorification

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Objectivity means judging events without personal, political, or emotional bias.

    6. Which statement best defines bias in history writing?

    A) Use of reliable data
    B) Distortion due to personal or ideological influence
    C) Dependence on verified sources
    D) Chronological accuracy

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Bias occurs when a historian’s personal beliefs or background shape interpretation of facts.

    7. “Facts are sacred, opinions are free.” Who said this?

    A) Lord Acton
    B) C.P. Scott
    C) Ranke
    D) Gibbon

    Answer: B
    Explanation: C.P. Scott emphasized objectivity — historians must separate facts from personal views.

    🔍 B. Historical Method — Heuristics, Criticism & Synthesis

    8. The process of collecting and identifying historical sources is called:

    A) Heuristics
    B) Hermeneutics
    C) Criticism
    D) Synthesis

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Heuristics refers to the systematic collection and classification of source materials.

    9. Checking the authenticity of a source is called:

    A) Internal criticism
    B) External criticism
    C) Source evaluation
    D) Verification

    Answer: B
    Explanation: External criticism ensures the document’s genuineness — author, date, and form.

    10. Evaluating the credibility or truthfulness of a document’s content is called:

    A) External criticism
    B) Internal criticism
    C) Heuristics
    D) Synthesis

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Internal criticism judges reliability — motives, consistency, and bias of the author.

    11. The final stage of historical research is:

    A) Hypothesis
    B) Criticism
    C) Synthesis and Presentation
    D) Source collection

    Answer: C
    Explanation: After analyzing sources, historians synthesize and present findings logically.

    12. Which of the following is not an auxiliary science of history?

    A) Archaeology
    B) Chemistry
    C) Numismatics
    D) Epigraphy

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Chemistry is not a direct auxiliary; others aid in reconstructing the past.

    13. Numismatics deals with the study of:

    A) Coins
    B) Inscriptions
    C) Manuscripts
    D) Monuments

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Numismatics helps date events and understand trade, kingship, and economy.

    14. Epigraphy is the study of:

    A) Coins
    B) Scripts and inscriptions
    C) Maps
    D) Architecture

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Epigraphy provides direct written records — decrees, donations, and edicts.

    15. Which science helps to fix the time and sequence of events?

    A) Geography
    B) Chronology
    C) Sociology
    D) Anthropology

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Chronology arranges historical events in their proper order of occurrence.

    ⚖️ C. Nature of History — Science, Art, or Social Science

    16. History is regarded as a science because:

    A) It uses laboratory experiments
    B) It studies human behavior
    C) It uses systematic evidence and methods
    D) It predicts the future

    Answer: C
    Explanation: History follows systematic methods — evidence collection and logical reasoning.

    17. History is also called an art because:

    A) It uses poetic imagination
    B) It involves creative expression and interpretation
    C) It ignores facts
    D) It glorifies rulers

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Historians must interpret data imaginatively while remaining factual.

    18. History is considered a social science because it:

    A) Deals with stars and planets
    B) Studies nature
    C) Studies human society and its evolution
    D) Ignores human activity

    Answer: C
    Explanation: History examines social, political, and cultural changes — core of social sciences.

    19. The causal relationship in history means:

    A) A series of unrelated events
    B) Cause and effect analysis
    C) Chronological listing
    D) Moral lessons

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Causation explains why events happened, not just what happened.

    20. Imagination in history should be:

    A) Unlimited
    B) Based on evidence
    C) Purely emotional
    D) Avoided entirely

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Imagination connects facts meaningfully but must remain evidence-based.

    🗺️ D. Regional History & New Trends

    21. Regional history helps in understanding:

    A) Global politics only
    B) Local aspects of historical change
    C) European colonialism only
    D) Mythology

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Regional studies reveal local patterns, diversity, and grassroots history.

    22. Recent trends in Indian historiography include:

    A) Dynastic glorification
    B) Subaltern and gender studies
    C) Colonial documentation
    D) Religious interpretations

    Answer: B
    Explanation: New trends emphasize common people, marginalized groups, and gender perspectives.

    23. The Subaltern Studies school focuses on:

    A) Elites and rulers
    B) Common people and marginalized voices
    C) Religious leaders
    D) British administrators

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Subaltern historians (e.g., Ranajit Guha) emphasized people excluded from elite narratives.

    24. Environmental history studies:

    A) Nature only
    B) Relationship between humans and environment over time
    C) Religious texts
    D) Political parties

    Answer: B
    Explanation: It analyzes how natural and human factors interact in historical development.

    🧪 E. Research Methodology

    25. The first step in historical research is:

    A) Hypothesis
    B) Topic selection
    C) Data analysis
    D) Bibliography

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Research begins with selecting a relevant and researchable topic.

    26. A hypothesis in historical research is:

    A) Final conclusion
    B) Tentative assumption to be tested
    C) Proven theory
    D) Literary description

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Hypothesis guides research and is tested against historical evidence.

    27. Primary sources include:

    A) Research articles
    B) Textbooks
    C) Original documents, diaries, letters
    D) Commentaries

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Primary sources are firsthand evidence of historical events.

    28. Secondary sources refer to:

    A) Unverified reports
    B) Later interpretations of primary data
    C) Oral history only
    D) Myths

    Answer: B
    Explanation: They include analysis, books, and articles interpreting original data.

    29. The act of evaluating and verifying evidence is called:

    A) Heuristics
    B) Criticism
    C) Hypothesis
    D) Narration

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Criticism ensures historical accuracy and authenticity of sources.

    30. Footnotes are used to:

    A) Decorate the text
    B) Explain difficult terms
    C) Cite sources of information
    D) Add new chapters

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Footnotes acknowledge sources and prevent plagiarism.

    31. A bibliography includes:

    A) Only books used
    B) All sources consulted for research
    C) Unrelated references
    D) Quotations

    Answer: B
    Explanation: It lists every book, article, or document referred to in research.

    32. Plagiarism means:

    A) Quoting properly
    B) Borrowing ideas with acknowledgment
    C) Copying without credit
    D) Paraphrasing fairly

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Plagiarism is intellectual dishonesty — using others’ work without attribution.

    🏺 F. Historiography: Evolution of History Writing

    33. Greek historians emphasized:

    A) Divine control
    B) Human actions and inquiry
    C) Supernatural causes
    D) National pride

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Greeks like Herodotus and Thucydides stressed rational investigation of human events.

    34. Roman historians wrote history mainly to:

    A) Entertain
    B) Teach moral and political lessons
    C) Praise gods
    D) Record trade

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Romans like Livy and Tacitus viewed history as a moral and patriotic guide.

    35. Medieval Church historians saw history as:

    A) Random events
    B) Divine plan of God
    C) Secular progress
    D) Political conflict

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Christian writers interpreted history as unfolding of God’s will.

    36. Renaissance historians introduced:

    A) Supernaturalism
    B) Critical and secular approach
    C) Church dominance
    D) Mythological writing

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Renaissance revived critical, humanist, and rational history writing.

    37. Machiavelli’s The Prince reflects:

    A) Divine history
    B) Political realism
    C) Religious morality
    D) Romantic idealism

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Machiavelli used history for practical political lessons — realism over morality.

    38. Auguste Comte’s Positivism inspired:

    A) Romantic history
    B) Scientific or factual history
    C) Religious historiography
    D) Postmodernism

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Comte’s positivism influenced historians to use scientific methods and verified data.

    39. Leopold von Ranke emphasized:

    A) Philosophy in history
    B) To tell history “as it really happened”
    C) Political propaganda
    D) Mythical traditions

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Ranke promoted objectivity and primary source-based history.

    40. Von Ranke is associated with which city’s intellectual movement?

    A) Oxford
    B) Paris
    C) Berlin
    D) Rome

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The “Berlin Revolution” in historiography began under Ranke’s influence.

    41. Marx’s historical materialism focuses on:

    A) Religion
    B) Economy and class struggle
    C) Ideology
    D) Geography

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Marx saw history as shaped by economic forces and conflicts between classes.

    42. According to Marx, society evolves through:

    A) Wars and peace
    B) Economic stages
    C) Religious reforms
    D) Cultural diffusion

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Human history progresses through economic systems — feudalism to socialism.

    43. The concept of “Base and Superstructure” was given by:

    A) Max Weber
    B) Karl Marx
    C) Ranke
    D) Toynbee

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Economic base (production) determines superstructure (politics, culture, ideas).

    44. Oswald Spengler’s theory is known as:

    A) Challenge and Response
    B) Cyclical Theory of History
    C) Evolutionary Theory
    D) Economic Determinism

    Answer: B
    Explanation: In The Decline of the West, Spengler viewed civilizations as cyclic organisms.

    45. According to Toynbee, civilization develops through:

    A) War
    B) Climate
    C) Challenge and creative response
    D) Religion

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Toynbee’s Challenge and Response theory explains growth through adaptability.

    46. “History repeats itself in cycles” — whose idea is this?

    A) Ranke
    B) Spengler
    C) Marx
    D) Toynbee

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Spengler viewed history as cyclical, not linear progress.

    47. Toynbee’s major work is:

    A) The Decline of the West
    B) A Study of History
    C) Das Kapital
    D) The Prince

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Toynbee’s A Study of History analyzes rise and fall of civilizations.

    🌀 G. Modern & Postmodern Historiography

    48. Postmodernists argue that history is:

    A) Objective fact
    B) A constructed narrative
    C) Pure science
    D) Religion-based

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Postmodernism denies absolute truth — history is shaped by language and perspective.

    49. “Power and knowledge are interconnected” — who said this?

    A) Ranke
    B) Foucault
    C) Marx
    D) Derrida

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Michel Foucault emphasized how knowledge systems reflect power structures.

    50. The linguistic turn in history refers to:

    A) Emphasis on political narratives
    B) Study of language’s role in shaping historical understanding
    C) Focus on military events
    D) Use of new documents

    Answer: B
    Explanation: It stresses that historical meaning depends on language and discourse.

    51. Hayden White is known for:

    A) Marxist historiography
    B) Narrative and literary interpretation of history
    C) Cyclical theory
    D) Archaeology

    Answer: B
    Explanation: White argued that history is written as narrative, blending fact and fiction.

    52. Which historian coined the term “Subaltern”?

    A) Ranajit Guha
    B) D.D. Kosambi
    C) Irfan Habib
    D) R.C. Majumdar

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Ranajit Guha initiated the Subaltern Studies Group in 1982 focusing on marginalized voices.

    53. The main aim of Marxist historiography is:

    A) To glorify rulers
    B) To study economic structure and class relations
    C) To emphasize divine intervention
    D) To describe myths

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Marxist historians explain change through material and economic causes.

    54. Postmodernism rejects:

    A) Evidence
    B) Absolute or universal truths
    C) Use of narrative
    D) Cultural interpretation

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Postmodernists argue there is no single truth — only multiple interpretations.

    55. Rankean objectivity was criticized by:

    A) Marxists and Postmodernists
    B) Greek historians
    C) Toynbee
    D) Church historians

    Answer: A
    Explanation: They argued Ranke ignored social and ideological contexts.

    56. D.D. Kosambi’s approach combined:

    A) Mythology and religion
    B) Marxism and scientific analysis
    C) Philosophy and art
    D) Sociology and fiction

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Kosambi applied Marxist methods to Indian socio-economic history.

    57. Who wrote The Wonder That Was India?

    A) A.L. Basham
    B) Romila Thapar
    C) Irfan Habib
    D) V.D. Savarkar

    Answer: A
    Explanation: A.L. Basham’s work presents India’s ancient civilization in scholarly, cultural context.

    58. Who defined history as “a science, no less and no more”?

    A) Ranke
    B) Seeley
    C) Marx
    D) Gibbon

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Sir John Seeley highlighted that history uses methods of science but studies human society.

    59. Intellectual honesty in history means:

    A) Following ideology
    B) Quoting without credit
    C) Acknowledging sources and being truthful
    D) Using imagination freely

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Intellectual honesty demands evidence-based and transparent scholarship.

    60. The main challenge for modern historians is:

    A) Lack of technology
    B) Maintaining objectivity amid diverse interpretations
    C) Refusing interdisciplinary research
    D) Ignoring regional studies

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Balancing multiple perspectives while maintaining evidence-based neutrality is the modern challenge.

  • UGC NET History Unit-10 Historical Method, Research Methodology and Historiography

    🏛️ 1. Scope and Importance of History

    • History is the systematic study of the past — of human actions, institutions, and ideas through time.

    • It helps us understand society, culture, and change, providing perspective for the present and the future.

    • History builds critical thinking, encourages objectivity, and develops national identity and historical consciousness.

    • It is both knowledge of facts and interpretation of events.

    🧠 2. Objectivity and Bias in History

    • Objectivity: Writing history based on facts, evidence, and neutrality, without personal or ideological influence.

    • Bias: Occurs when a historian’s opinions, class, religion, or politics affect their interpretation.

    • Complete objectivity is difficult, but historians should strive for impartial analysis and rely on verified evidence.

    • Famous quote: “Facts are sacred, opinions are free.” – C.P. Scott

    🔍 3. Heuristics Operation, Criticism, Synthesis, and Presentation

    • Heuristics: Process of collecting and identifying sources relevant to research.

    • Criticism: Evaluation of sources — two types:

      • External Criticism: Checks authenticity (date, author, originality).

      • Internal Criticism: Checks reliability and credibility (truthfulness, consistency).

    • Synthesis: Combining verified data into a coherent narrative.

    • Presentation: Writing the final interpretation — logical, chronological, and evidence-based.

    🧩 4. History and its Auxiliary Sciences

    History uses help from other sciences to reconstruct the past:

    Auxiliary Science Contribution
    Archaeology Study of ancient material remains.
    Numismatics

    Study of coins.
    Epigraphy

    Study of inscriptions.
    Anthropology

    Study of human societies and cultures.
    Sociology

    Helps understand social structures.
    Geography

    Explains physical settings influencing history.
    Linguistics

    Decodes languages and scripts.
    Chronology

    Establishes time sequence.

    ⚖️ 5. Is History a Science, an Art, or a Social Science?

    • Science: Uses systematic methods, evidence, and analysis.

    • Art: Requires imagination, expression, and interpretation.

    • Social Science: Studies human behavior in time context.
      🟢 Consensus: History is both a science (method) and an art (expression) — a social science in nature.

    💭 6. Causation and Imagination in History

    • Causation: Every event has causes and effects. Historians analyze why events occurred, not just what happened.

    • Imagination: Helps fill gaps where data is incomplete — but must remain controlled and evidence-based.

    • Historical imagination connects facts coherently without distorting them.

    🌍 7. Significance of Regional History

    • Focuses on local or regional developments in the context of national and global history.

    • Shows diversity within unity — regional studies highlight grassroots realities.

    • Encourages micro-historical research and reduces central bias in history writing.

    🔄 8. Recent Trends in Indian History

    • Shift from political and dynastic history → to social, economic, cultural, and gender studies.

    • Subaltern studies: History from below — voices of peasants, women, and marginalized.

    • Environmental history, oral history, and digital history are new research areas.

    • Focus on interdisciplinary and regional perspectives.

    📖 9. Research Methodology in History

    • Refers to the systematic process of investigation for discovering and interpreting historical facts.

    • Steps include:

      1. Selection of topic

      2. Review of literature

      3. Formulation of hypothesis

      4. Collection and criticism of data

      5. Interpretation and presentation

    🧩 10. Hypothesis in History

    • A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or assumption guiding historical research.

    • Example: “The Revolt of 1857 was not only a military revolt but also a socio-political uprising.”

    • It directs investigation and helps to test facts logically.

    🗂️ 11. Area of Proposed Research

    • Depends on the historian’s interest, available sources, and relevance.

    • Should be specific, researchable, and meaningful — e.g., regional movements, gender roles, economic change, etc.

    📚 12. Sources of Historical Research

    (a) Primary Sources

    • Original, firsthand evidence — official documents, letters, diaries, inscriptions, coins, newspapers, oral accounts.

    (b) Secondary Sources

    • Interpretations based on primary data — books, articles, reviews, commentaries.

    (c) Transit Sources

    • Intermediate data connecting primary and secondary sources, like translations or edited texts.

    📊 13. Trends in Historical Research

    • Modern historians use quantitative methods, oral testimonies, and digital archives.

    • Rise of interdisciplinary research combining sociology, anthropology, and political science.

    • Post-colonial and feminist historiography challenge Eurocentric narratives.

    🧾 14. Selection of Topic in History

    • Should be:

      • Researchable and significant

      • Supported by adequate sources

      • Manageable in scope and time

      • Free from personal bias

    🖋️ 15. Notes Taking, References, Footnotes, and Bibliography

    • Notes-taking: Summarize important ideas from sources.

    • Footnotes: Used for acknowledging exact references in text.

    • Bibliography: Full list of all sources consulted, arranged alphabetically.

    Example of a footnote:

    R.C. Majumdar, History of Freedom Movement in India, Vol. I (Calcutta, 1962), p. 45.

    📜 16. Thesis and Assignment Writing

    • Should have:

      • Introduction (problem & objectives)

      • Literature review

      • Methodology

      • Data analysis

      • Conclusion & bibliography

    Qualities: clarity, coherence, originality, proper documentation.

    🚫 17. Plagiarism and Intellectual Dishonesty

    • Plagiarism: Copying another’s work or ideas without credit.

    • Considered unethical and punishable.

    • Historians must acknowledge all sources used.

    • Intellectual honesty is key to authentic history writing.

    🏛️ 18. Beginnings of Historical Writing

    Civilization Features
    Greek Herodotus (Father of History), Thucydides — emphasized causes and accuracy.
    Roman

    Livy, Tacitus — practical lessons and moral purpose.
    Church / Medieval

    History as divine plan; focused on religion and morality.

    🌅 19. Renaissance and Its Impact on History Writing

    • The Renaissance (14th–16th c.) revived critical and secular spirit in history.

    • Rejected divine interpretation; emphasized humanism and rational inquiry.

    • Prominent historians: Machiavelli, Guicciardini.

    ⚔️ 20. Negative and Positive Schools of History

    • Negative School: Emphasized skepticism, rejection of religious explanations.

    • Positive School: Introduced scientific method in history; stressed factual accuracy (inspired by Auguste Comte’s positivism).

    🏙️ 21. Berlin Revolution in History Writing – Leopold von Ranke

    • Founder of modern scientific historiography.

    • Motto: “To tell how it actually happened” (Wie es eigentlich gewesen).

    • Emphasized primary sources, objectivity, and state documents.

    • Established history as a scientific discipline in 19th century.

    ⚙️ 22. Marxist Philosophy of History – Scientific Materialism

    • Based on Karl Marx’s dialectical materialism.

    • History driven by economic factors and class struggle.

    • Society passes through stages — primitive → slave → feudal → capitalist → socialist.

    • Base (economy) determines superstructure (politics, culture).

    • Major Indian Marxist historians: D.D. Kosambi, R.S. Sharma, Irfan Habib.

    🔁 23. Cyclical Theory of History – Oswald Spengler

    • Proposed in “The Decline of the West”.

    • Civilizations are like living organisms — birth, growth, maturity, decay.

    • History repeats in cycles; Western civilization too will decline.

    ⚔️ 24. Challenge and Response Theory – Arnold Toynbee

    • History is progress through responses to challenges (natural, social, or moral).

    • Civilizations survive if they respond creatively; decline when they fail.

    • Example: Greece rose through response to Persian challenge.

    🌀 25. Post-Modernism in History

    • Emerged in the late 20th century.

    • Questions the objectivity and universality of historical truth.

    • Emphasizes multiple perspectives, language, and subjectivity.

    • History seen as a constructed narrative, not an absolute truth.

    • Key thinkers: Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Hayden White.

    ✅ Summary Table

    Theme Key Idea
    Historical Method Scientific study of past using evidence
    Objectivity

    Neutral analysis of facts
    Criticism

    Testing authenticity of sources
    Heuristics

    Collection of sources
    Causation

    Understanding “why” events happened
    Auxiliary Sciences

    Archaeology, Epigraphy, Numismatics etc.
    Historiography

    Study of writing of history
    Marxist

    Class struggle and materialism
    Rankean

    Objectivity and primary sources
    Toynbee

    Challenge and Response
    Spengler

    Cyclical rise and fall
    Postmodern

    Multiple interpretations, narrative construction

  • UGC NET History Unit-9 RISE OF INDIAN NATIONALISM & INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE MCQs

    PART A – RISE OF INDIAN NATIONALISM (1885–1947)

    1. The Indian National Congress was founded in:

    A) 1880
    B) 1885
    C) 1890
    D) 1900

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume with W.C. Bonnerjee as its first president.

    2. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held at:

    A) Calcutta
    B) Bombay
    C) Madras
    D) Allahabad

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The first INC session was held in Bombay (Mumbai) in December 1885.

    3. The main aim of early nationalists was:

    A) Complete independence
    B) Swaraj through armed struggle
    C) Constitutional and political reforms
    D) Social equality

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Moderates demanded constitutional reforms and believed in petitions and discussions with the British.

    4. Who is known as the “Grand Old Man of India”?

    A) Dadabhai Naoroji
    B) G.K. Gokhale
    C) B.G. Tilak
    D) Lala Lajpat Rai

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Dadabhai Naoroji is called the “Grand Old Man of India” for his leadership and economic analysis of colonial exploitation.

    5. Dadabhai Naoroji’s book “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India” explained:

    A) Drain of Wealth Theory
    B) Swaraj Concept
    C) Civil Disobedience
    D) Industrialization

    Answer: A
    Explanation: He argued that British rule drained India’s wealth through trade imbalance and salaries to British officials.

    6. The period 1885–1905 in Indian National Congress history is called:

    A) Extremist phase
    B) Revolutionary phase
    C) Moderate phase
    D) Socialist phase

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The first phase of Congress was dominated by Moderates (1885–1905).

    7. The slogan “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it” was given by:

    A) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
    B) Lala Lajpat Rai
    C) Bipin Chandra Pal
    D) Gopal Krishna Gokhale

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the leader of Extremists, gave this slogan to inspire mass participation.

    8. The Partition of Bengal was carried out in:

    A) 1903
    B) 1905
    C) 1907
    D) 1909

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal in 1905 on administrative grounds, which provoked the Swadeshi Movement.

    9. The Swadeshi and Boycott Movements were launched to protest:

    A) Rowlatt Act
    B) Partition of Bengal
    C) Simon Commission
    D) Jallianwala Bagh

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Partition of Bengal in 1905 led to Swadeshi and Boycott of British goods.

    10. The trio of Lal-Bal-Pal represents:

    A) Social reformers
    B) Moderate leaders
    C) Extremist nationalists
    D) Revolutionaries

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin Chandra Pal were leaders of the Extremist faction.

    11. The revolutionary organization Anushilan Samiti was founded in:

    A) Bengal
    B) Punjab
    C) Bombay
    D) Madras

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Founded in Bengal, Anushilan Samiti inspired youth to take up armed resistance.

    12. The Home Rule Movement was started by:

    A) Gandhi
    B) Annie Besant and B.G. Tilak
    C) C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru
    D) Lajpat Rai and Bhagat Singh

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Both Annie Besant and Tilak started Home Rule Movements in 1916 demanding self-government.

    13. The Lucknow Pact (1916) was signed between:

    A) Congress and British
    B) Congress and Muslim League
    C) British and League
    D) Gandhi and Jinnah

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Lucknow Pact united Congress and Muslim League for joint political action against British rule.

    14. The Rowlatt Act (1919) authorized:

    A) Right to vote
    B) Detention without trial
    C) Free press
    D) Abolition of taxes

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Rowlatt Act allowed imprisonment without trial, leading to widespread protests.

    15. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place in:

    A) 1918
    B) 1919
    C) 1920
    D) 1921

    Answer: B
    Explanation: On 13 April 1919, General Dyer fired on peaceful protesters in Amritsar, killing hundreds.

    16. The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in:

    A) 1917
    B) 1920
    C) 1925
    D) 1930

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920 after the Jallianwala tragedy and Khilafat issue.

    17. The Non-Cooperation Movement was called off due to:

    A) British concessions
    B) Chauri Chaura incident
    C) Simon Commission
    D) Salt Satyagraha

    Answer: B
    Explanation: In 1922, Gandhi suspended the movement after violence at Chauri Chaura (UP).

    18. The Civil Disobedience Movement began with:

    A) Champaran Satyagraha
    B) Quit India Movement
    C) Dandi March
    D) Jallianwala Bagh protest

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Gandhi’s Salt March (Dandi, 1930) launched the Civil Disobedience Movement.

    19. The slogan “Do or Die” was associated with:

    A) Non-Cooperation
    B) Civil Disobedience
    C) Quit India Movement
    D) Swadeshi Movement

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The slogan was given by Gandhi in Quit India Movement (1942).

    20. The Forward Bloc was formed by:

    A) Subhas Chandra Bose
    B) Jawaharlal Nehru
    C) Bhagat Singh
    D) S.C. Bose and Jinnah

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Subhas Chandra Bose founded the Forward Bloc in 1939 after leaving Congress.

    21. The Indian National Army (INA) was formed by:

    A) Mahatma Gandhi
    B) Jawaharlal Nehru
    C) Subhas Chandra Bose
    D) C.R. Das

    Answer: C
    Explanation: INA was formed under Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943 to fight the British with Japanese help.

    22. “Give me blood and I will give you freedom” was said by:

    A) Jawaharlal Nehru
    B) Mahatma Gandhi
    C) Subhas Chandra Bose
    D) Bhagat Singh

    Answer: C
    Explanation: This famous quote reflects Bose’s militant call for independence.

    23. The Poona Pact (1932) was signed between:

    A) Gandhi and Ambedkar
    B) Nehru and Jinnah
    C) Tilak and Gokhale
    D) Patel and Rajaji

    Answer: A
    Explanation: The pact provided reserved seats for depressed classes in joint electorates, replacing separate electorates.

    24. The Muslim League was founded in:

    A) 1905
    B) 1906
    C) 1910
    D) 1916

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The All India Muslim League was founded in 1906 in Dhaka to represent Muslim interests.

    25. The demand for Pakistan was first formally made in:

    A) 1930
    B) 1935
    C) 1940
    D) 1945

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Lahore Resolution (1940) by Muslim League formally demanded separate states for Muslims.

    26. The Indian Independence Act came into effect on:

    A) 26 January 1950
    B) 15 August 1947
    C) 2 October 1947
    D) 14 August 1947

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Act granted independence to India and Pakistan on 15 August 1947.

    27. The Mountbatten Plan proposed:

    A) End of British rule
    B) Partition of India
    C) Transfer of power
    D) All of the above

    Answer: D
    Explanation: Mountbatten Plan (1947) proposed partition, independence, and transfer of power.

    🇮🇳 PART B – INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE (1947–Present)

    28. The first Governor-General of Independent India was:

    A) C. Rajagopalachari
    B) Lord Mountbatten
    C) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
    D) Jawaharlal Nehru

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Lord Mountbatten was the first Governor-General (1947–48); later, Rajagopalachari became the first Indian Governor-General.

    29. The integration of princely states was led by:

    A) Nehru
    B) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
    C) Rajendra Prasad
    D) Ambedkar

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Patel and V.P. Menon successfully integrated over 560 princely states into India.

    30. The princely states of Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Junagarh were integrated through:

    A) Referendums and military action
    B) Peace treaties
    C) British intervention
    D) United Nations mediation

    Answer: A
    Explanation: India used diplomacy and military force (e.g., Operation Polo in Hyderabad) for integration.

    31. B.R. Ambedkar was the chairman of:

    A) Constitution Drafting Committee
    B) Planning Commission
    C) Constituent Assembly
    D) Election Commission

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Dr. Ambedkar chaired the Drafting Committee, ensuring social justice and equality.

    32. The Indian Constitution came into force on:

    A) 26 November 1949
    B) 15 August 1947
    C) 26 January 1950
    D) 2 October 1950

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Constitution adopted in 1949, came into effect on 26 January 1950, celebrated as Republic Day.

    33. The first Five-Year Plan was launched in:

    A) 1947
    B) 1950
    C) 1951
    D) 1952

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The First Five-Year Plan (1951–56) focused on agriculture and rural development.

    34. The Planning Commission was established in:

    A) 1949
    B) 1950
    C) 1951
    D) 1952

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Set up in 1950 by a Cabinet Resolution to plan India’s economic development.

    35. The first linguistic state formed in India was:

    A) Tamil Nadu
    B) Maharashtra
    C) Andhra Pradesh
    D) Kerala

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Andhra Pradesh was created in 1953 after Potti Sriramulu’s fast for Telugu-speaking areas.

    36. The States Reorganization Act was passed in:

    A) 1953
    B) 1956
    C) 1960
    D) 1962

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Act (1956) reorganized Indian states on linguistic basis.

    37. India’s first general elections were held in:

    A) 1949–50
    B) 1951–52
    C) 1954–55
    D) 1956–57

    Answer: B
    Explanation: India’s first general elections were held in 1951–52, making it the world’s largest democracy.

    38. The first Prime Minister of India was:

    A) Sardar Patel
    B) Rajendra Prasad
    C) Jawaharlal Nehru
    D) B.R. Ambedkar

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Jawaharlal Nehru was India’s first and longest-serving Prime Minister (1947–64).

    39. Panchsheel Agreement was signed between:

    A) India and USA
    B) India and Pakistan
    C) India and China
    D) India and Russia

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Signed between India and China (1954) — five principles of peaceful coexistence.

    40. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was founded under leadership of:

    A) Gandhi
    B) Nehru, Tito, Nasser
    C) Indira Gandhi
    D) Rajiv Gandhi

    Answer: B
    Explanation: NAM founded by Nehru (India), Tito (Yugoslavia), and Nasser (Egypt) to stay neutral during the Cold War.

    41. The Green Revolution in India began in:

    A) 1950s
    B) 1960s
    C) 1970s
    D) 1980s

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Green Revolution (1960s) introduced high-yield crops and irrigation, improving food security.

    42. The Emergency was declared in India in:

    A) 1971
    B) 1973
    C) 1975
    D) 1977

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Emergency (1975–77) declared by Indira Gandhi, suspending Fundamental Rights.

    43. The slogan “Garibi Hatao” was given by:

    A) Nehru
    B) Indira Gandhi
    C) Rajiv Gandhi
    D) Lal Bahadur Shastri

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Indira Gandhi’s slogan during the 1971 elections emphasized poverty removal.

    44. The Janata Party government came to power in:

    A) 1975
    B) 1977
    C) 1980
    D) 1984

    Answer: B
    Explanation: After the Emergency, Janata Party led by Morarji Desai formed government in 1977.

    45. The 73rd Constitutional Amendment relates to:

    A) Fundamental Rights
    B) Panchayati Raj
    C) Directive Principles
    D) Federal Structure

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The 73rd Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions.

    46. Liberalisation, Privatisation, and Globalisation (LPG) policy was introduced in:

    A) 1985
    B) 1989
    C) 1991
    D) 1995

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The 1991 Economic Reforms under P.V. Narasimha Rao and Dr. Manmohan Singh opened India’s economy.

    47. The New Education Policy 1986 focused on:

    A) Religious studies
    B) Science and technical education
    C) British model of education
    D) Arts and literature

    Answer: B
    Explanation: NEP 1986 emphasized science, vocational training, and equal access to education.

    48. The NEP 2020 introduced a:

    A) 3+2+2 model
    B) 10+2 system
    C) 5+3+3+4 model
    D) 4+4+4 model

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The NEP 2020 replaced 10+2 with 5+3+3+4 structure focusing on holistic learning.

    49. The Right to Education (RTE) Act was enacted in:

    A) 2002
    B) 2005
    C) 2009
    D) 2012

    Answer: C
    Explanation: RTE Act (2009) made education a fundamental right for children aged 6–14.

    50. The “Look East Policy” was introduced by:

    A) Indira Gandhi
    B) Rajiv Gandhi
    C) Narasimha Rao
    D) Vajpayee

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Initiated by P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991) to strengthen relations with Southeast Asia.

    51. The Right to Information (RTI) Act was passed in:

    A) 2000
    B) 2002
    C) 2005
    D) 2010

    Answer: C
    Explanation: RTI Act (2005) ensures citizen’s access to government information, enhancing transparency.

    52. India’s economic planning model is:

    A) Socialist
    B) Capitalist
    C) Mixed economy
    D) Communist

    Answer: C
    Explanation: India follows a mixed economy — public and private sectors coexist.

    53. The “Chipko Movement” was related to:

    A) Labour rights
    B) Women empowerment
    C) Forest conservation
    D) Rural employment

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The Chipko Movement (1973) in Uttarakhand promoted forest protection by hugging trees.

    54. The Narmada Bachao Andolan protested against:

    A) Urban pollution
    B) Industrial privatization
    C) Dam construction and displacement
    D) Deforestation

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Led by Medha Patkar, it opposed displacement due to large dam projects.

    55. The first woman Prime Minister of India was:

    A) Vijayalakshmi Pandit
    B) Indira Gandhi
    C) Sarojini Naidu
    D) Sucheta Kriplani

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Indira Gandhi became India’s first woman Prime Minister in 1966 and served (with interruptions) until 1984.

    56. The Mandal Commission (report implemented in 1990s) was related to:

    A) Land reforms
    B) Reservation for Other Backward Classes (OBCs)
    C) Privatisation policies
    D) Foreign policy

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Mandal Commission (1979) recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in government jobs; its implementation (1990s) sparked wide debate.

    57. The Pokhran-I nuclear test (India’s first) was conducted in:

    A) 1974
    B) 1984
    C) 1998
    D) 2004

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Smiling Buddha was India’s first successful nuclear test at Pokhran in 1974.

    58. The Right to Information (RTI) Act aims primarily to:

    A) Provide free legal aid
    B) Ensure transparency and accountability of government
    C) Expand reservation benefits
    D) Regulate political parties

    Answer: B
    Explanation: RTI (2005) empowers citizens to access government records to promote transparency.

    59. The term ‘Emergency’ (1975–77) in Indian politics primarily involved:

    A) Economic liberalisation
    B) Suspension of civil liberties and press censorship
    C) Reorganisation of states
    D) Expansion of Panchayati Raj

    Answer: B
    Explanation: During the Emergency, Fundamental Rights were curtailed, political opponents arrested, and press censored.

    60. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation (LPG) reforms of 1991 primarily aimed to:

    A) Strengthen state-owned monopolies
    B) Open the Indian economy to global markets and private investment
    C) Abolish provincial governments
    D) Nationalise major industries

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The 1991 reforms reduced controls, promoted foreign investment, and shifted India toward a market-oriented economy.

  • UGC NET History Unit-9 Rise of Indian Nationalism & India After Independence

    🏛️ PART A – RISE OF INDIAN NATIONALISM (1885–1947)

    1. Social and Economic Basis of Indian Nationalism

    (a) Social Factors

    • Growth of English education created a new middle class aware of Western ideas (liberty, equality, nationalism).

    • Press and literature (like Kesari, The Hindu, Amrita Bazar Patrika) spread nationalist ideas.

    • Social reform movements (Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj) modernized society and promoted unity.

    • Modern transport & communication (railways, telegraph) connected people across regions.

    (b) Economic Factors

    • Economic exploitation under British rule: Drain of wealth, deindustrialization, heavy taxation.

    • Rise of Indian industries created an industrial class interested in economic freedom.

    • The economic misery of peasants and workers united people against colonial rule.

    • Nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, G.K. Gokhale exposed British economic policies.

    2. Birth of the Indian National Congress (INC)

    • Founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume (a retired British officer) with 72 delegates.

    • W.C. Bonnerjee was the first President.

    • Objective: Create a platform for political dialogue between Indians and the British government.

    3. Ideologies and Phases of the Congress (1885–1920)

    (i) Early Nationalists (Moderates)

    Period: 1885–1905
    Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjee.
    Methods: Petitions, resolutions, constitutional reforms, faith in British justice.
    Demands:

    • Indianization of services

    • Expansion of Legislative Councils

    • Reduction of military expenditure
      Criticism: Too mild and loyal to British crown.

    (ii) Assertive (Extremist) Nationalists

    Period: 1905–1919
    Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal).
    Slogan: Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.
    Methods: Boycott, Swadeshi, passive resistance, mass mobilization.
    Causes for Rise: Partition of Bengal (1905), dissatisfaction with Moderates, repressive British laws.

    (iii) Revolutionary Nationalism

    • Young radicals adopted militant and secret activities (1907–1930).

    • Organizations: Anushilan Samiti, Jugantar, Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).

    • Leaders: Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Ram Prasad Bismil, etc.

    • Inspired by European revolutionary movements and sacrifice for freedom.

    4. Swadeshi and Swaraj Movements

    • Swadeshi Movement (1905): Started during Partition of Bengal.

      • Promoted indigenous goods, boycott of foreign items, and national education.

      • Spread to all parts of India.

    • Swaraj: Idea of self-rule – from moderate petitions to full independence (Purna Swaraj, 1929).

    5. Gandhian Era (1919–1947)

    Gandhian Mass Movements

    1. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22):

      • In response to Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.

      • Boycott of schools, courts, foreign goods.

      • Suspended after Chauri Chaura incident (1922).

    2. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34):

      • Started with Dandi March (1930) – protest against salt tax.

      • Aim: Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence).

    3. Quit India Movement (1942):

      • Launched after failure of Cripps Mission.

      • Slogan: Do or Die.

      • Marked the final phase of British rule in India.

    6. Subhas Chandra Bose and INA

    • Forward Bloc founded (1939) after differences with Gandhi.

    • Organized Indian National Army (INA) in 1943 with Japanese support.

    • Slogan: “Give me blood, and I will give you freedom.”

    • INA fought bravely in Burma and Manipur but failed militarily.

    • Inspired national pride and military revolt (1946).

    7. Role of Middle Class in the National Movement

    • The educated middle class led reform and nationalist organizations.

    • Lawyers, teachers, journalists became political leaders.

    • Formed the intellectual base of Indian nationalism.

    8. Women’s Participation

    • Women like Sarojini Naidu, Kasturba Gandhi, Annie Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali, Vijayalakshmi Pandit played key roles.

    • Actively joined Civil Disobedience and Quit India Movements.

    • Women’s organizations like AIWC (1927) linked nationalism with gender equality.

    9. Left Wing Politics

    • Emerged in the 1920s–30s with influence of Russian Revolution (1917).

    • Communist Party of India (1925), Congress Socialist Party (1934).

    • Advocated workers’ rights, anti-imperialism, and socialism within national movement.

    10. Depressed Class Movement

    • Led by B.R. Ambedkar, demanding social equality and representation for Dalits.

    • Organizations: Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924), Independent Labour Party (1936).

    • Conflict with Congress over separate electorates (Poona Pact, 1932).

    11. Communal Politics and Genesis of Pakistan

    • All India Muslim League (1906) founded in Dhaka to protect Muslim interests.

    • Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress and League cooperation.

    • Two-Nation Theory (1930s): Promoted by M.A. Jinnah.

    • Lahore Resolution (1940): Demand for Pakistan.

    • Partition of India (1947) created India and Pakistan.

    12. Towards Independence and Partition

    • Mountbatten Plan (1947): Proposed partition and transfer of power.

    • Indian Independence Act (1947): Ended British rule in India on 15 August 1947.

    • Aftermath: Communal violence, refugee crisis, and massive displacement.

    🇮🇳 PART B – INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE (1947–Present)

    1. Challenges of Partition

    • Around 10 million displaced, nearly 1 million killed.

    • Communal riots, refugee settlement, and administrative division of assets between India and Pakistan.

    2. Integration of Princely States

    • India had 565 princely states at independence.

    • Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon led integration through diplomacy and force.

    • Kashmir, Hyderabad, Junagarh were integrated using military action when rulers resisted.

    3. B.R. Ambedkar and the Making of the Constitution

    • Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee.

    • Constitution adopted on 26 January 1950.

    • Features:

      • Parliamentary democracy

      • Fundamental Rights

      • Directive Principles

      • Secularism, Federalism

      • Independent Judiciary

    4. Structure of Bureaucracy

    • Inherited colonial administrative system (ICS → IAS).

    • Bureaucracy became key in implementing planning, development, and governance.

    • Criticized for red-tapism but remained stable pillar of Indian democracy.

    5. New Education Policy

    • Kothari Commission (1964–66) laid base for national education.

    • 1986 NEP: Emphasis on equality, science, and technology.

    • 2020 NEP: Multidisciplinary education, 5+3+3+4 model, flexibility in subjects, focus on research and digital learning.

    6. Economic Policies and Planning

    • Planning Commission (1950) launched Five-Year Plans.

    • Emphasis on self-reliance, industrialization, and poverty reduction.

    • Mixed economy model – combination of public and private sectors.

    7. Development, Displacement and Tribal Issues

    • Dams, industries led to displacement of tribals (Narmada, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh).

    • Led to environmental movements like Chipko, Narmada Bachao Andolan.

    • Focus on sustainable and inclusive development.

    8. Linguistic Reorganization of States

    • Demand for states based on language started after 1947.

    • Andhra Pradesh (1953) first linguistic state (after Potti Sriramulu’s fast).

    • States Reorganization Act (1956) reorganized India into 14 states and 6 UTs.

    9. Centre–State Relations

    • Constitution created a federal system with unitary bias.

    • Conflicts over resource distribution, law & order, and language.

    • Sarkaria Commission (1983) and Punchhi Commission (2007) reviewed centre-state relations.

    10. Foreign Policy and Panchsheel

    • Panchsheel (1954) – Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence with China.

      1. Mutual respect for sovereignty

      2. Non-aggression

      3. Non-interference

      4. Equality and mutual benefit

      5. Peaceful coexistence

    • India followed Non-Alignment Policy during Cold War (Nehru’s vision).

    11. Dynamics of Indian Politics

    (a) The Emergency (1975–77)

    • Declared by Indira Gandhi citing internal disturbance.

    • Suspension of Fundamental Rights, censorship, and arrests of opposition.

    • Restored democracy in 1977 elections.

    (b) Liberalisation, Privatisation, and Globalisation (LPG)

    • Introduced in 1991 under P.V. Narasimha Rao and Dr. Manmohan Singh.

    • Shift from planned to market-oriented economy.

    • Aimed at economic growth, foreign investment, and globalization.

    Summary Table

    Theme Key Points
    Nationalism Social, economic awakening under colonialism
    INC

    Moderates, Extremists, Revolutionaries
    Gandhi Non-violent mass movements
    Left Wing

    Socialism, trade unions, peasant struggles
    Depressed Classes

    Ambedkar’s leadership, equality
    Partition

    Division of India and Pakistan
    Post-Independence

    Integration, Constitution, planning
    Politics

    Emergency, Reforms, Globalization

  • UGC NET History Unit-8 Colonial Economy and Indian Society in Transition MCQs

    1. The main feature of India’s colonial economy was:

    A) Industrial self-sufficiency
    B) Economic dependence on Britain
    C) Rapid industrialization
    D) Isolation from world markets

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The British transformed India into a dependent economy — exporting raw materials and importing British goods, making it subordinate to British interests.

    2. The ‘Drain of Wealth’ theory was given by:

    A) R.C. Dutt
    B) M.G. Ranade
    C) Dadabhai Naoroji
    D) Gopal Krishna Gokhale

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Dadabhai Naoroji in his book “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India” explained how wealth was being drained from India to Britain through trade, salaries, and interests.

    3. The Permanent Settlement (1793) was introduced by:

    A) Lord Wellesley
    B) Lord Cornwallis
    C) Lord Ripon
    D) Lord Curzon

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal in 1793, fixing land revenue permanently and creating the Zamindari system.

    4. The Ryotwari system was mainly implemented in:

    A) Bengal
    B) Madras and Bombay
    C) Punjab
    D) Assam

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Ryotwari system was introduced in Madras and Bombay presidencies, where revenue was collected directly from peasants (ryots).

    5. The Mahalwari system was introduced in:

    A) Bengal
    B) Bombay
    C) North-Western Provinces
    D) Assam

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The Mahalwari system (by Holt Mackenzie) in North-Western Provinces assessed land revenue on entire villages (mahals).

    6. Commercialization of agriculture led to:

    A) Food security
    B) Growth of small industries
    C) Peasant indebtedness and famines
    D) Increase in land productivity

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Peasants grew cash crops instead of food crops, causing hunger, indebtedness, and repeated famines.

    7. The Indigo Revolt (1859-60) took place in:

    A) Bengal
    B) Bihar
    C) Punjab
    D) Madras

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Indigo planters in Bengal were exploited by European planters. Peasants revolted against forced cultivation of indigo.

    8. The Deccan Riots (1875) were led by:

    A) Indigo peasants
    B) Landless labourers
    C) Peasants against moneylenders
    D) Zamindars against British

    Answer: C
    Explanation: In the Deccan region, peasants revolted against the oppressive practices of moneylenders (Marwaris).

    9. The British built railways mainly to:

    A) Help Indian trade
    B) Unite India
    C) Facilitate military movement and export raw materials
    D) Encourage tourism

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The railways were constructed primarily to transport raw materials to ports and move troops easily.

    10. The first railway line in India was opened in:

    A) 1843
    B) 1853
    C) 1863
    D) 1873

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The first railway ran between Bombay and Thane in 1853 (34 km).

    11. The major cash crops grown under British rule were:

    A) Rice and wheat
    B) Cotton, indigo, opium, and jute
    C) Tea and maize
    D) Barley and sugarcane

    Answer: B
    Explanation: These were the main export crops promoted by the British for European industries.

    12. The first modern industry in India was:

    A) Jute
    B) Textile
    C) Iron and Steel
    D) Paper

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The cotton textile industry was the earliest modern industry, especially in Bombay and Ahmedabad.

    13. The jute industry was concentrated in:

    A) Bombay
    B) Calcutta
    C) Madras
    D) Delhi

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Bengal (especially Calcutta) was the main centre of jute manufacturing.

    14. The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was founded in:

    A) 1907
    B) 1890
    C) 1911
    D) 1901

    Answer: A
    Explanation: TISCO was established in Jamshedpur in 1907 by J.N. Tata, marking India’s modern industrial development.

    15. The first Factory Act in India was passed in:

    A) 1870
    B) 1881
    C) 1895
    D) 1900

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Factory Act of 1881 regulated child labour and limited working hours in textile factories.

    16. The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed in:

    A) 1915
    B) 1920
    C) 1925
    D) 1930

    Answer: B
    Explanation: AITUC, India’s first national trade union, was formed in 1920 under N.M. Joshi and Lala Lajpat Rai.

    17. The first Indian-owned bank was:

    A) Allahabad Bank
    B) Oudh Commercial Bank
    C) Imperial Bank
    D) State Bank of India

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Oudh Commercial Bank (1881) was the first bank owned and managed by Indians.

    18. The term “Deindustrialization” refers to:

    A) Growth of industries
    B) Decline of traditional handicrafts
    C) Expansion of railways
    D) Increase in exports

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Indian crafts declined due to British factory goods flooding the market.

    19. Who described British rule as “Un-British” in his writings?

    A) Dadabhai Naoroji
    B) R.C. Dutt
    C) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
    D) M.G. Ranade

    Answer: B
    Explanation: R.C. Dutt wrote “Economic History of India” describing British rule as exploitative and “Un-British”.

    20. Famines during British rule were mainly caused by:

    A) Overpopulation
    B) Lack of rainfall
    C) Cash crop cultivation and neglect of food crops
    D) Epidemics

    Answer: C
    Explanation: British policy focused on commercial crops rather than ensuring food supply.

    21. The Bengal Famine occurred in:

    A) 1876
    B) 1943
    C) 1899
    D) 1905

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Bengal Famine of 1943 killed over 3 million people due to wartime policies and food shortage.

    22. The ‘Drain of Wealth’ mainly occurred through:

    A) Domestic trade
    B) Export surplus
    C) Home charges and remittances to Britain
    D) Imports from Europe

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Money went out in the form of pensions, salaries, and profits earned by British officials and companies.

    23. The introduction of the English Education Act (1835) is associated with:

    A) Wood’s Despatch
    B) Macaulay’s Minute
    C) Charles Wood
    D) Raja Ram Mohan Roy

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) promoted English education and Western knowledge.

    24. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were established in:

    A) 1847
    B) 1857
    C) 1867
    D) 1877

    Answer: B
    Explanation: These were India’s first three modern universities, founded in 1857.

    25. The Wood’s Despatch (1854) is known as:

    A) Magna Carta of English Education in India
    B) First Education Act
    C) Vernacular Education Policy
    D) Oriental Policy

    Answer: A
    Explanation: It emphasized the creation of universities and a systematic education system in India.

    26. The Brahmo Samaj was founded by:

    A) Swami Vivekananda
    B) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
    C) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
    D) Dayananda Saraswati

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 to promote monotheism and social reforms.

    27. The Arya Samaj was founded in:

    A) 1828
    B) 1840
    C) 1875
    D) 1895

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded Arya Samaj in 1875 promoting “Back to the Vedas”.

    28. The Theosophical Society was led in India by:

    A) Annie Besant
    B) Margaret Cousins
    C) Pandita Ramabai
    D) Cornelia Sorabji

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Annie Besant popularized the Theosophical movement in India, blending Indian spirituality with modern reform.

    29. Who was known as the “Father of Indian Renaissance”?

    A) Swami Vivekananda
    B) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
    C) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
    D) Bal Gangadhar Tilak

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the pioneer of the Indian Renaissance for his reform efforts.

    30. The Sati system was abolished in:

    A) 1818
    B) 1829
    C) 1835
    D) 1857

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Governor-General Lord William Bentinck abolished Sati in 1829 due to efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

    Part 2 — MCQs (31–60)

    31. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed in:

    A) 1829
    B) 1848
    C) 1856
    D) 1872

    Answer: C
    Explanation: The Widow Remarriage Act (1856) was passed due to efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, promoting remarriage for Hindu widows.

    32. Who among the following founded the Ramakrishna Mission?

    A) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
    B) Swami Vivekananda
    C) Swami Dayananda Saraswati
    D) Annie Besant

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Swami Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 to promote spiritual and social upliftment.

    33. The term “Social Reform Movement” in 19th-century India primarily refers to:

    A) Political reform
    B) Economic reform
    C) Efforts to change social evils and practices
    D) Religious conversion

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Social reformers aimed to end practices like Sati, child marriage, untouchability, and promote education and equality.

    34. The Age of Consent Act (1891) raised the minimum age for marriage to:

    A) 10 years
    B) 12 years
    C) 14 years
    D) 16 years

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Act raised the age of consent for girls from 10 to 12 years in response to social reform campaigns.

    35. Pandita Ramabai is known for her work in:

    A) Women’s education and emancipation
    B) Caste reform
    C) Labour reform
    D) Temple entry movement

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Pandita Ramabai worked for women’s education, founded Sharada Sadan (1889), and supported widow education.

    36. The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) was established in:

    A) 1915
    B) 1927
    C) 1930
    D) 1936

    Answer: B
    Explanation: AIWC (1927) was founded to promote women’s education and equal rights, led by Margaret Cousins and Sarojini Naidu.

    37. British reforms concerning women included:

    A) Sati Regulation Act
    B) Widow Remarriage Act
    C) Age of Consent Act
    D) All of the above

    Answer: D
    Explanation: These acts were part of British social legislation influenced by Indian reformers’ efforts.

    38. The first Indian newspaper was:

    A) Amrita Bazar Patrika
    B) The Hindu
    C) Bengal Gazette
    D) Hindustan Times

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Bengal Gazette (1780) by James Augustus Hickey was India’s first newspaper.

    39. ‘Kesari’ and ‘Maratha’ newspapers were founded by:

    A) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
    B) Dadabhai Naoroji
    C) Lala Lajpat Rai
    D) Bipin Chandra Pal

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Tilak used these papers to spread nationalism and criticize British rule.

    40. The Indian Press played a major role in:

    A) Encouraging British culture
    B) Promoting social harmony
    C) Creating political awareness and public opinion
    D) Supporting colonial policies

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Vernacular newspapers united people against injustice and built national consciousness.

    41. The Santhal Rebellion occurred in:

    A) 1775–77
    B) 1835–37
    C) 1855–56
    D) 1885–87

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Santhal tribes revolted (1855–56) against British landlords and moneylenders due to exploitation.

    42. The Munda Rebellion was led by:

    A) Birsa Munda
    B) Tilka Manjhi
    C) Sidhu Murmu
    D) Kanhu Murmu

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Birsa Munda led the rebellion (1899–1900) in Chotanagpur against British interference in tribal lands.

    43. The tribal uprising known as ‘Ulgulan’ is associated with:

    A) Bhil Revolt
    B) Kol Rebellion
    C) Munda Rebellion
    D) Santhal Revolt

    Answer: C
    Explanation: ‘Ulgulan’ means “Great Tumult” — the term used for the Munda Uprising under Birsa Munda.

    44. The Indigo Revolt was triggered mainly due to:

    A) High land tax
    B) Forced cultivation under European planters
    C) Religious discrimination
    D) Introduction of cash crops

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Peasants were forced to grow indigo for European planters under harsh conditions.

    45. The Deccan Riots Commission was set up in:

    A) 1875
    B) 1885
    C) 1890
    D) 1905

    Answer: A
    Explanation: The Commission (1875) investigated the causes of peasant unrest against moneylenders in Maharashtra.

    46. The first organized labour union in India was:

    A) Bombay Mill Hands Association
    B) AITUC
    C) Madras Labour Union
    D) Hind Mazdoor Sabha

    Answer: A
    Explanation: The Bombay Mill Hands Association was established in 1890 by N.M. Lokhande, India’s first labour leader.

    47. Who wrote “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India”?

    A) R.C. Dutt
    B) Dadabhai Naoroji
    C) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
    D) M.G. Ranade

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The book analyzed how British economic policies drained India’s wealth.

    48. The major goal of British industrial policy in India was to:

    A) Develop Indian industries
    B) Protect Indian handicrafts
    C) Make India a supplier of raw materials
    D) Encourage exports of Indian goods

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Industrial policy was designed to keep India dependent on Britain’s industrial needs.

    49. Who among the following was associated with “Drain of Wealth” and “Home Charges”?

    A) M.G. Ranade
    B) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
    C) Dadabhai Naoroji
    D) Lala Lajpat Rai

    Answer: C
    Explanation: Dadabhai Naoroji explained these concepts to show Britain’s economic exploitation of India.

    50. The city of Jamshedpur grew mainly because of:

    A) Cotton mills
    B) Steel industry
    C) British trade ports
    D) Textile exports

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Jamshedpur developed around the Tata Steel Plant (TISCO) — India’s first large steel industry.

    51. The upper Ganga Canal was opened in:

    A) 1840
    B) 1854
    C) 1860
    D) 1872

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The canal system was built to irrigate the Doab region — primarily to aid commercial crops.

    52. The major famine relief policy introduced by the British was:

    A) Permanent Settlement
    B) Famine Codes
    C) Wood’s Despatch
    D) Factory Act

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Famine Codes (1878 onwards) were guidelines for relief during famines, though poorly implemented.

    53. “Drain Theory” primarily highlighted:

    A) Political suppression
    B) Economic exploitation
    C) Educational reform
    D) Cultural domination

    Answer: B
    Explanation: It exposed how Britain extracted wealth from India through trade, taxation, and remittances.

    54. The new urban centres that developed during British rule were:

    A) Delhi and Agra
    B) Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Kanpur
    C) Jaipur and Mysore
    D) Lucknow and Benares

    Answer: B
    Explanation: These port and industrial cities became centres of administration and trade under the British.

    55. The Indo-Saracenic style of architecture combined:

    A) Indian and Mughal styles
    B) Indian and European styles
    C) Hindu and Buddhist styles
    D) European and Persian styles

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Indo-Saracenic was a blend of Indian and Western architectural forms — seen in colonial public buildings.

    56. The British built railways mainly for:

    A) Indian industrial development
    B) Military and trade purposes
    C) Rural welfare
    D) Employment generation

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Railways served to transport raw materials to ports and move troops swiftly across India.

    57. The earliest Indian modern artist known for realistic painting was:

    A) Abanindranath Tagore
    B) Ravi Varma
    C) Jamini Roy
    D) Amrita Sher-Gil

    Answer: B
    Explanation: Raja Ravi Varma blended Indian themes with European realism, pioneering modern Indian art.

    58. The Indian School of painting led by Abanindranath Tagore emphasized:

    A) Western realism
    B) Indian traditional and spiritual art
    C) Abstract modernism
    D) Political propaganda

    Answer: B
    Explanation: The Bengal School revived traditional Indian art forms with nationalist spirit.

    59. Modern Indian literature developed under the influence of:

    A) Western education and printing press
    B) British censorship
    C) Missionary activities alone
    D) Ancient Sanskrit revival

    Answer: A
    Explanation: Western education and printing press encouraged vernacular writing and modern prose forms.

    60. The main social consequence of British rule in India was:

    A) Rise of capitalist class
    B) Emergence of new middle class and educated elite
    C) Decline of all traditional classes
    D) Strengthening of feudalism

    Answer: B
    Explanation: English education created a modern, politically aware middle class that led reform and nationalism.

     

  • UGC NET History Unit-8 Colonial Economy and Indian Society in Transition

    1. Colonial Economy

    (a) Changing Composition, Volume, and Direction of Trade

    • During British rule, India’s economy became colonial and dependent.

    • The composition of trade changed — India exported raw materials (cotton, jute, indigo, opium, tea, wheat) and imported finished British goods (textiles, machinery, iron goods).

    • The volume of trade increased but benefitted the British more than Indians.

    • The direction of trade shifted from Asian countries to Britain and Europe.

    • India became a supplier of raw materials and a consumer of British manufactured goods.

    (b) Expansion and Commercialization of Agriculture

    • Traditional subsistence farming turned into commercial farming.

    • Farmers were encouraged to grow cash crops like indigo, cotton, jute, tea, coffee, and opium.

    • This led to food scarcity, famine, and peasant poverty.

    • Land was used for exports rather than feeding the population.

    (c) Land Rights and Settlements

    • The British introduced new land revenue systems to secure fixed income:

      1. Permanent Settlement (1793) – Bengal (Zamindari System): Land given to Zamindars who collected taxes.

      2. Ryotwari Settlement – Madras & Bombay: Taxes collected directly from peasants (ryots).

      3. Mahalwari Settlement – North-West Provinces: Land belonged to village communities.

    • These systems increased peasant burden, debt, and landlessness.

    (d) Rural Indebtedness and Landless Labour

    • Farmers borrowed from moneylenders at high interest rates.

    • Failure to repay debts led to loss of land and bonded labour.

    • Landless agricultural workers increased rapidly.

    (e) Irrigation and Canal System

    • The British developed irrigation for revenue and commercial crops, not for peasants’ benefit.

    • Large canals built: Upper Ganga Canal (1854), Punjab Canal System, etc.

    • Helped some areas but unequal distribution caused regional imbalance.

    (f) Decline of Traditional Industries

    • Indian handicrafts and cottage industries, especially textiles, declined due to British imports.

    • Skilled artisans lost jobs — deindustrialization took place.

    • Led to urban decline (de-urbanization) and migration to villages.

    (g) Economic Drain

    • Indian wealth was drained to Britain through:

      • Home charges (salaries, pensions of British officers)

      • Profits of British companies

      • Interest on public debt held in Britain

    • Concept popularized by Dadabhai Naoroji (“Drain of Wealth Theory”).

    (h) Impact of World Wars

    • World War I: Stimulated Indian industries (cotton, steel, jute).

    • World War II: Further boosted industry but caused inflation and food shortages.

    (i) British Industrial Policy

    • Policies favored British interests.

    • Industrialization was limited and regionally uneven.

    • Modern industries emerged: textiles (Bombay), jute (Bengal), iron & steel (TISCO, 1907), coal (Bengal-Bihar).

    (j) Factory Legislation and Labour Movements

    • Early factories had poor working conditions.

    • Laws like Factories Act 1881, 1891, 1911 tried to regulate work hours and child labour.

    • Labour unions developed: AITUC (1920) was the first national union.

    • Leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai, N.M. Joshi.

    (k) Monetary Policy and Banking

    • Uniform currency system introduced (Rupee).

    • Presidency Banks (Bombay, Calcutta, Madras) merged into Imperial Bank (1921) → precursor to SBI (1955).

    • Exchange rate fixed to Gold Standard.

    (l) Railways, Transport, and Communications

    • Railways introduced in 1853 (Bombay to Thane) to transport goods to ports.

    • Roads, Post, and Telegraph expanded to help administration and trade.

    • Promoted internal unity but mainly served colonial economic interests.

    (m) Urban Growth and Planning

    • New cities emerged: Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Kanpur.

    • Urban architecture reflected British styles (Victorian-Gothic, Indo-Saracenic).

    • New municipal systems established but urban poor faced sanitation and housing problems.

    (n) Famines, Epidemics, and Government Policy

    • Frequent famines: 1770, 1876–78, 1899, 1943 (Bengal Famine).

    • Caused by cash crop focus and neglect of food security.

    • Epidemics like plague, cholera, influenza spread.

    • Government response was inadequate and indifferent.

    2. Social and Cultural Change

    (a) Contact with Christianity and Missionaries

    • Missionaries criticized Indian traditions (caste, child marriage, widowhood).

    • Promoted Western education, women’s education, and social reform.

    • Led to cultural awakening and self-reform movements.

    (b) Education and Modernism

    • Macaulay’s Minute (1835) promoted English education.

    • 1854: Wood’s Despatch expanded education system.

    • Universities established (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras – 1857).

    • Spread of science, public health, medicine laid foundations of modern India.

    (c) Indian Renaissance and Reform Movements

    • Rise of social reformers:

      • Raja Ram Mohan Roy – Brahmo Samaj, against Sati.

      • Swami Dayananda Saraswati – Arya Samaj, back to Vedas.

      • Swami Vivekananda – emphasized spiritual nationalism.

      • Jyotiba Phule, Periyar – anti-caste, education for all.

    • Middle class emerged with English education — became leaders of reform and nationalism.

    (d) Women’s Question

    • Reformers like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Pandita Ramabai, Sarojini Naidu worked for women’s rights.

    • British passed laws: Abolition of Sati (1829), Widow Remarriage (1856), Age of Consent Act (1891).

    • Nationalist discourse also included women’s emancipation and education.

    • Women’s organizations like AIWC (1927) raised gender issues.

    (e) Printing Press and Public Opinion

    • The printing press helped spread ideas, nationalism, and reform.

    • Newspapers: Bengal Gazette (1780), Kesari, Amrita Bazar Patrika, The Hindu.

    • Created public opinion and political awareness.

    (f) Modernization of Indian Languages and Arts

    • Vernacular literature flourished: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Bharati, Premchand.

    • Revival of Indian art and music: Ravi Varma, Abanindranath Tagore.

    • Performing arts (theatre, classical music) adapted modern themes.

    (g) Tribal and Peasant Movements

    • Major tribal uprisings: Santhal (1855–56), Munda (1899–1900).

    • Peasant movements: Indigo Revolt (1859), Deccan Riots (1875).

    • They protested exploitation by zamindars, moneylenders, and British officials.

    ✅ Summary Table

    Aspect Change under Colonial Rule
    Economy

    Shift to export-oriented, dependent economy
    Agriculture

    Commercialized, cash-crop based
    Industry

    Decline of handicrafts, rise of few modern industries
    Education

    English and modern subjects introduced
    Society

    Social reforms, rise of middle class
    Women

    Legal reforms and organizations for rights
    Culture Growth of press, literature, arts, and nationalism

  • UGC NET History UNIT-7 Sources of Modern Indian History & Rise of British Power (16th–20th Century) MCQs

    🧾 SECTION A — SOURCES OF MODERN INDIAN HISTORY (1–15)

    1. The Imperial Record Department, precursor of the National Archives of India, was founded in—
      (A) 1861 (B) 1881 (C) 1891 (D) 1901
      Answer: (C) 1891
      Explanation: Established in Calcutta, later shifted to Delhi (1911), to preserve official records.

    1. The India Office Records in London mainly contain—
      (A) Mughal court chronicles (B) East India Company papers (C) Buddhist texts (D) Persian manuscripts
      Answer: (B) East India Company papers.

    1. Which of the following is the earliest English newspaper in India?
      (A) The Hindu (B) Bombay Chronicle (C) Bengal Gazette (D) Madras Courier
      Answer: (C) Bengal Gazette
      Explanation: Started by James Augustus Hickey in 1780 at Calcutta.

    1. Who is considered the “Father of the Indian Press”?
      (A) Raja Rammohan Roy (B) James Hickey (C) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (D) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
      Answer: (B) James Hickey.

    1. ‘Neel Darpan’ by Dinabandhu Mitra deals with—
      (A) Sati (B) Indigo cultivation (C) Widow Remarriage (D) Education reform
      Answer: (B) Indigo cultivation
      Explanation: Highlighted exploitation of peasants by indigo planters.

    1. ‘Anandamath’ was written by—
      (A) Rabindranath Tagore (B) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (C) Dinabandhu Mitra (D) Bipin Chandra Pal
      Answer: (B) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.

    1. Who wrote “My Experiments with Truth”?
      (A) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (B) Mahatma Gandhi (C) Jawaharlal Nehru (D) Rabindranath Tagore
      Answer: (B) Mahatma Gandhi.

    1. Which archive holds documents relating to East India Company’s administration?
      (A) National Archives, Delhi (B) State Archives (C) India Office Records, London (D) British Library
      Answer: (C) India Office Records, London.

    1. Company Paintings represent—
      (A) Mughal style (B) Indo-European hybrid art (C) Persian art (D) Dravidian temple murals
      Answer: (B) Indo-European hybrid art.

    1. Oral sources are particularly useful for studying—
      (A) Dynastic politics (B) Folk traditions and local movements (C) Parliamentary debates (D) British bureaucracy
      Answer: (B) Folk traditions and local movements.

    1. Raja Ravi Varma is famous for—
      (A) Miniature painting (B) Classical dance (C) Mythological oil paintings (D) Landscape art
      Answer: (C) Mythological oil paintings.

    1. Which of the following periodicals was associated with Bal Gangadhar Tilak?
      (A) Young India (B) Kesari (C) Indian Mirror (D) The Hindu
      Answer: (B) Kesari.

    1. The ‘National Archives of India’ was shifted to Delhi in—
      (A) 1911 (B) 1917 (C) 1920 (D) 1930
      Answer: (A) 1911.

    1. The first vernacular newspaper banned by the British under the Vernacular Press Act (1878) was—
      (A) Kesari (B) Amrita Bazar Patrika (C) Calcutta Chronicle (D) Mahratta
      Answer: (B) Amrita Bazar Patrika.

    1. Which of these is not a source for modern Indian history?
      (A) Inscriptions (B) Archival records (C) Newspapers (D) Biographies
      Answer: (A) Inscriptions
      Explanation: Inscriptions mainly belong to ancient/medieval periods.

    ⚓ SECTION B — EUROPEAN POWERS & BRITISH EXPANSION (16–40)

    1. The first European to reach India by sea was—
      (A) Columbus (B) Vasco da Gama (C) Magellan (D) Cabral
      Answer: (B) Vasco da Gama (1498).

    1. The Portuguese established their first factory in India at—
      (A) Goa (B) Cochin (C) Calicut (D) Diu
      Answer: (B) Cochin.

    1. Which European power established Pulicat as its early capital in India?
      (A) French (B) Portuguese (C) Dutch (D) British
      Answer: (C) Dutch.

    1. The English East India Company was founded in—
      (A) 1599 (B) 1600 (C) 1601 (D) 1602
      Answer: (B) 1600
      Explanation: Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I.

    1. The first English factory in India was established at—
      (A) Bombay (B) Calcutta (C) Surat (D) Madras
      Answer: (C) Surat (1613).

    1. The French East India Company was established in—
      (A) 1600 (B) 1615 (C) 1664 (D) 1707
      Answer: (C) 1664.

    1. The decisive Anglo–French conflict in India was the—
      (A) Battle of Wandiwash (B) Battle of Buxar (C) Battle of Plassey (D) Battle of Panipat
      Answer: (A) Battle of Wandiwash (1760).

    1. French Governor Dupleix was defeated by—
      (A) Robert Clive (B) Warren Hastings (C) Lord Cornwallis (D) Wellesley
      Answer: (A) Robert Clive.

    1. The English acquired Bombay from the Portuguese as—
      (A) War spoil (B) Royal dowry (C) Purchase (D) Military treaty
      Answer: (B) Royal dowry (1661, marriage of Charles II & Catherine of Braganza).

    1. Battle of Plassey was fought in—
      (A) 1756 (B) 1757 (C) 1764 (D) 1772
      Answer: (B) 1757.

    1. Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated at Plassey by—
      (A) Clive (B) Wellesley (C) Cornwallis (D) Hastings
      Answer: (A) Robert Clive.

    1. The Battle of Buxar (1764) was fought between—
      (A) British & Marathas (B) British & French (C) British & Bengal–Oudh–Mughal coalition (D) British & Mysore
      Answer: (C) British & Bengal–Oudh–Mughal coalition.

    1. The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) granted—
      (A) Military control (B) Diwani rights of Bengal to British (C) Judicial authority (D) Monopoly of trade
      Answer: (B) Diwani rights of Bengal to British.

    1. The Mysore ruler who died fighting the British in 1799 was—
      (A) Hyder Ali (B) Tipu Sultan (C) Krishnadevaraya (D) Haidar Jung
      Answer: (B) Tipu Sultan.

    1. The policy of Subsidiary Alliance was introduced by—
      (A) Wellesley (B) Hastings (C) Cornwallis (D) Dalhousie
      Answer: (A) Lord Wellesley.

    1. The main aim of Subsidiary Alliance was—
      (A) Revenue collection (B) Expansion of trade (C) Political domination (D) Religious conversion
      Answer: (C) Political domination.

    1. Doctrine of Lapse was formulated by—
      (A) Wellesley (B) Dalhousie (C) Bentinck (D) Curzon
      Answer: (B) Lord Dalhousie.

    1. Jhansi was annexed under—
      (A) Subsidiary Alliance (B) Doctrine of Lapse (C) Partition of Bengal (D) Direct annexation
      Answer: (B) Doctrine of Lapse.

    1. Punjab was annexed in—
      (A) 1843 (B) 1846 (C) 1849 (D) 1856
      Answer: (C) 1849.

    1. Who was the Governor-General during the annexation of Punjab?
      (A) Wellesley (B) Dalhousie (C) Canning (D) Hastings
      Answer: (B) Lord Dalhousie.

    1. Oudh was annexed by the British in—
      (A) 1843 (B) 1856 (C) 1857 (D) 1860
      Answer: (B) 1856.

    1. The first Indian state to sign the Subsidiary Alliance was—
      (A) Hyderabad (B) Mysore (C) Awadh (D) Gwalior
      Answer: (A) Hyderabad (1798).

    1. Tipu Sultan’s capital was—
      (A) Mysore (B) Srirangapatna (C) Bangalore (D) Arcot
      Answer: (B) Srirangapatna.

    1. The British Residency system was meant to—
      (A) Collect taxes (B) Supervise princely states (C) Promote education (D) Conduct trade fairs
      Answer: (B) Supervise princely states.

    1. Who among the following called the East India Company’s rule “a great robbery”?
      (A) Dadabhai Naoroji (B) Tilak (C) Marx (D) Gandhi
      Answer: (C) Karl Marx.

    ⚔️ SECTION C — REVOLT OF 1857 (41–55)

    1. The immediate cause of the Revolt of 1857 was—
      (A) Doctrine of Lapse (B) Greased cartridges (C) Annexation of Oudh (D) Social reforms
      Answer: (B) Greased cartridges.

    1. The Revolt of 1857 began at—
      (A) Delhi (B) Meerut (C) Kanpur (D) Jhansi
      Answer: (B) Meerut.

    1. Bahadur Shah II was proclaimed Emperor by rebels at—
      (A) Delhi (B) Kanpur (C) Lucknow (D) Jhansi
      Answer: (A) Delhi.

    1. Rani Lakshmibai was ruler of—
      (A) Oudh (B) Jhansi (C) Gwalior (D) Satara
      Answer: (B) Jhansi.

    1. Tantia Tope was associated with—
      (A) Jhansi (B) Kanpur (C) Bihar (D) Delhi
      Answer: (B) Kanpur.

    1. Kunwar Singh led the revolt in—
      (A) Delhi (B) Bihar (C) Lucknow (D) Punjab
      Answer: (B) Bihar.

    1. Begum Hazrat Mahal led the revolt in—
      (A) Lucknow (B) Delhi (C) Kanpur (D) Gwalior
      Answer: (A) Lucknow.

    1. The Revolt of 1857 was described as the “First War of Indian Independence” by—
      (A) Savarkar (B) R.C. Majumdar (C) Marx (D) Nehru
      Answer: (A) V.D. Savarkar.

    1. Who was the Governor-General during the Revolt of 1857?
      (A) Dalhousie (B) Canning (C) Curzon (D) Hastings
      Answer: (B) Lord Canning.

    1. Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858 promised—
      (A) Freedom (B) Religious neutrality & equality (C) Economic reforms (D) End of monarchy
      Answer: (B) Religious neutrality & equality.

    1. After 1858, India came directly under—
      (A) British Parliament (B) East India Company (C) Queen of Britain (D) Governor-General
      Answer: (C) Queen of Britain.

    1. The Revolt of 1857 ended with—
      (A) Capture of Delhi (B) Death of Bahadur Shah (C) Capture of Gwalior (D) Queen’s Proclamation
      Answer: (D) Queen’s Proclamation (1858).

    1. Main cause of failure of the Revolt was—
      (A) Lack of leadership & coordination (B) Lack of arms (C) British diplomacy (D) All of these
      Answer: (D) All of these.

    1. Post-1857, the ratio of European to Indian soldiers was fixed at—
      (A) 1:2 (B) 1:3 (C) 1:5 (D) 2:3
      Answer: (A) 1:2.

    1. Which Governor-General abolished the East India Company?
      (A) Canning (B) Dalhousie (C) Curzon (D) Ripon
      Answer: (A) Lord Canning.

  • UGC NET History Unit-7 SOURCES OF MODERN INDIAN HISTORY AND RISE OF BRITISH POWER

    🧾 I. SOURCES OF MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

    Modern Indian History (roughly 1600–1947 CE) is one of the best-documented phases of Indian past because of the availability of a wide range of archival, literary, official, and material evidence. These sources help us reconstruct the political, administrative, economic, social, and cultural developments during the colonial period.

    🔹 1. Archival Materials

    • Definition: Archival materials include official documents, correspondence, minutes of meetings, government orders, treaties, revenue records, and administrative reports preserved by governments and institutions.

    • Major Repositories:

      • National Archives of India (New Delhi): Established in 1891 as the Imperial Record Department, it preserves central government records from the East India Company and British India.

      • State Archives: In Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Patna, Bhopal, Hyderabad, etc., which keep regional and provincial records.

      • India Office Records (London): Contain vast documentation on British rule in India, including correspondence between the East India Company and the British government.

    • Importance:

      • Provide firsthand data about policy decisions, revenue systems, and colonial administration.

      • Serve as authentic records for political, legal, and economic history.

    🔹 2. Biographies, Memoirs, and Personal Papers

    • These writings give a subjective and human dimension to historical events.

    • European administrators (Clive, Hastings, Curzon) and Indian nationalists (Nehru, Gandhi) left detailed accounts.

    • Important Examples:

      • Warren Hastings: A Biography by Gleig.

      • Life of Clive by Macaulay.

      • Autobiography of an Indian Princess by Sunity Devi.

      • An Autobiography by Jawaharlal Nehru.

      • The Story of My Experiments with Truth by Mahatma Gandhi.

    • Value: These records reveal mentalities, motivations, and the personal side of imperial and nationalist figures.

    🔹 3. Newspapers and Periodicals

    • Newspapers were crucial in creating nationalist consciousness and documenting socio-political changes.

    • Early Newspapers:

      • Bengal Gazette (1780) by James Augustus Hickey – first newspaper printed in India.

      • Calcutta Chronicle, Madras Courier, and Bombay Herald followed soon.

    • Indian-run Newspapers:

      • Amrita Bazar Patrika (Bengal), The Hindu (Madras), Kesari and Mahratta (Bal Gangadhar Tilak), Bombay Chronicle (Parsee press).

    • Importance:

      • Reflected public opinion, political debates, and nationalist aspirations.

      • Contain valuable information on social reform movements, colonial policies, and the rise of nationalism.

    🔹 4. Oral Evidence

    • Includes oral traditions, songs, ballads, folktales, and testimonies passed through generations.

    • Crucial for understanding subaltern, tribal, and peasant histories where written records are lacking.

    • Used for reconstructing events like 1857 revolt, peasant uprisings, and local resistance movements.

    🔹 5. Creative Literature and Paintings

    • Novels and plays reflected the growing awareness of colonial exploitation and social change.

      • Anandamath by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay — inspired nationalism.

      • Neel Darpan (Dinabandhu Mitra) — exposed the plight of indigo cultivators.

      • Gitanjali (Rabindranath Tagore) — expressed universal humanism.

    • Company Paintings: Fusion of Indian and European styles depicting Indian life under the Company.

    • Raja Ravi Varma: Pioneer of Indian modern art — blended mythological themes with realism.

    🔹 6. Monuments and Coins

    • Colonial Architecture: Forts (Fort St. George, Fort William), churches, government buildings (Writers’ Building, Victoria Memorial, Rashtrapati Bhavan).

    • Coins: Issued by East India Company and the Crown reflect sovereignty, economy, and trade systems.

    • Provide visual and economic evidence of the colonial transition.

    ⚓ II. RISE OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA

    🔹 1. European Rivalry in India (16th–18th Centuries)

    Power Year of Arrival Important Centres Nature of Rule and Decline
    Portuguese 1498 (Vasco da Gama) Goa, Diu, Daman, Cochin First Europeans in India; monopoly declined after 17th century.
    Dutch 1605

    Pulicat, Nagapattinam, Cochin

    		 Lost dominance to the British by 1759.
    English (EIC)

    1600 (Charter by Queen Elizabeth I)

    		 Surat, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta Became dominant political power by mid-18th century.
    French

    1664 (French East India Company)

    		 Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Mahe, Karaikal Defeated by British in Carnatic Wars (1757–1763).

    🔹 2. Anglo–French Rivalry and Carnatic Wars

    • Fought mainly in South India for political and commercial supremacy.

    • First Carnatic War (1746–1748): Result of Anglo–French rivalry in Europe.

    • Second Carnatic War (1749–1754): French under Dupleix interfered in local politics; Clive defeated them.

    • Third Carnatic War (1758–1763): British victory at Wandiwash ended French political influence.

    🏰 III. ESTABLISHMENT OF BRITISH DOMINION

    🔹 1. Bengal – The Beginning of Empire

    • Battle of Plassey (1757):

      • British (Robert Clive) defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah with help from Mir Jafar.

      • British gained political control over Bengal.

    • Battle of Buxar (1764):

      • British (Hector Munro) defeated Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula (Oudh), and Shah Alam II.

      • Confirmed Company’s control over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.

    • Treaty of Allahabad (1765):

      • Mughal Emperor granted Diwani rights (revenue collection) to the East India Company.

      • Foundation of British administrative rule in India.

    🔹 2. Expansion to South and West India

    • Mysore Wars (1767–1799): Four wars between British and Mysore rulers (Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan).

      • Fourth War (1799): Tipu Sultan killed; Mysore brought under British control.

    • Subsidiary Alliance (1798): Introduced by Lord Wellesley — Indian rulers had to accept British troops for “protection” → loss of sovereignty.

    🔹 3. Anglo–Maratha Wars (1775–1818)

    • Three wars fought:

      • First (1775–82) — inconclusive.

      • Second (1803–05) — British victory under Wellesley.

      • Third (1817–18) — Peshwa Baji Rao II defeated; end of Maratha Confederacy.

    • Result: British supremacy established in western India.

    🔹 4. Annexation of the Punjab (1849)

    • Two Anglo–Sikh Wars:

      • First War (1845–46): Treaty of Lahore — limited Sikh independence.

      • Second War (1848–49): Annexation of Punjab under Lord Dalhousie.

    🤝 IV. RELATIONS WITH PRINCIPAL INDIAN STATES

    State Relationship with the British
    Bengal Became the base of British rule after 1765.
    Oudh (Awadh)

    Ally turned annexed in 1856 under “Doctrine of Misrule.”
    Hyderabad First to accept Subsidiary Alliance (1798).
    Mysore

    Defeated (1799); puppet Wodeyar dynasty restored.
    Carnatic

    Site of Anglo–French rivalry; came under Company rule.
    Punjab Annexed after Second Anglo–Sikh War (1849).

    ⚔️ V. THE REVOLT OF 1857

    🔹 1. Causes

    Political:

    • Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie) annexed Jhansi, Satara, Nagpur.

    • Displacement of traditional rulers and nobles.

    Economic:

    • Exploitative land revenue systems; destruction of handicrafts and trade.

    • Decline of old aristocracy and artisans.

    Military:

    • Discrimination in pay and promotion.

    • Greased cartridge controversy (cow/pig fat).

    Social and Religious:

    • Fear of Christian missionary activities.

    • Disrespect for Indian traditions and customs.

    🔹 2. Nature and Leadership

    • Began at Meerut (10 May 1857).

    • Spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Central India.

    • Leaders:

      • Bahadur Shah II – nominal leader, Delhi.

      • Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope – Kanpur.

      • Rani Lakshmibai – Jhansi.

      • Kunwar Singh – Bihar.

      • Begum Hazrat Mahal – Lucknow.

    🔹 3. Nature of the Revolt

    • Described as:

      • “Sepoy Mutiny” (British historians).

      • “National War of Independence” (Indian historians).

      • Combined character – both rebellion and early nationalism.

    🔹 4. Impact and Results

    • Suppressed by 1858.

    • End of East India Company rule → Power transferred to British Crown.

    • Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858):

      • Guaranteed religious tolerance.

      • Equal protection under law.

      • Recognition of princes and subjects’ rights.

    • Reorganization of Army, Administration, and Financial Control.

    🏛️ VI. ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE COMPANY AND THE CROWN

    🔹 1. Under East India Company (1773–1858)

    Regulating Act (1773):

    • First attempt at parliamentary control.

    • Governor of Bengal → Governor-General (Warren Hastings).

    • Supreme Court established at Calcutta (1774).

    Pitt’s India Act (1784):

    • Created Board of Control in Britain to supervise Company affairs.

    • Dual control system (Company + Parliament).

    Charter Acts (1813, 1833, 1853):

    • Ended Company trade monopoly (1813).

    • Made Governor-General of India (1833).

    • Introduced open competition for civil services (1853).

    🔹 2. Under the British Crown (1858–1947)

    Government of India Act, 1858:

    • Transferred power from Company to Crown.

    • Created Secretary of State for India and Viceroy.

    • Abolished the Company.

    Indian Councils Acts (1861, 1892):

    • Introduced limited legislative representation for Indians.

    Indian Civil Service (ICS):

    • Introduced merit-based exams (1853 onwards).

    • Indians admitted gradually (first Indian — Satyendranath Tagore, 1863).

    Judiciary:

    • 1774: Supreme Court at Calcutta.

    • 1861: High Courts Act unified legal system.

    Police & Army:

    • Regular police system organized (Cornwallis).

    • Army reorganized — ratio of Europeans to Indians fixed (1:2).

    👑 VII. BRITISH PARAMOUNTCY AND PRINCELY STATES

    • Doctrine of Lapse: (Lord Dalhousie, 1848–56)

      • Annexation of states without a male heir (Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, Sambalpur).

    • Subsidiary Alliance: (Lord Wellesley)

      • Indian states forced to maintain British troops and accept a Resident.

    • Paramountcy under Crown:

      • British claimed ultimate supremacy; Indian princes retained internal rule.

      • Chamber of Princes (1920) created as advisory body.

    🏙️ VIII. LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

    🔹 Lord Mayo (1870)

    • Initiated financial decentralization between Centre and Provinces.

    🔹 Lord Ripon (1882)

    • Known as “Father of Local Self-Government in India.”

    • Introduced:

      • Elected members in municipalities and district boards.

      • Local bodies to handle education, health, sanitation.

      • Foundation for democratic decentralization.

    ⚖️ IX. CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS (1909–1935)

    Act Main Features Significance
    Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley–Minto Reforms) Introduced separate electorates for Muslims; allowed limited Indian participation in councils. Beginning of communal representation.
    Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms)

    Introduced Dyarchy in provinces (transferred and reserved subjects); bicameral legislature at Centre.

    		 Step towards responsible government.
    Government of India Act, 1935

    Proposed All-India Federation; introduced Provincial Autonomy; extended franchise.

    		 Basis of the 1950 Indian Constitution.

    🧭 X. SUMMARY OF BRITISH EXPANSION AND ADMINISTRATION

    Period Character Major Features
    1600–1765 Commercial phase Trade, rivalries, Company settlements.
    1765–1857 Political-military phase

    Conquest, revenue reforms, economic exploitation.
    1858–1935 Bureaucratic–constitutional phase

    Centralization, nationalism, gradual reforms.

    🪔 XI. IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE (Brief Overview)

    • Political: Centralized administration, modern bureaucracy, law courts.

    • Economic: Drain of wealth, deindustrialization, new land systems (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari).

    • Social: Western education, reform movements (Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar).

    • Cultural: English language, press, modern arts and architecture.

    • Nationalism: Emergence of Indian National Congress (1885) and freedom struggle.

  • UGC NET History Unit-6 Society and Culture in Medieval India (1200–1750 CE) MCQs

    🏛️ SECTION A — SOCIETY & SUFISM (1–25)

    1. The basic unit of medieval Indian social structure was —
      (A) Family (B) Caste (C) Village (D) Kingdom
      Answer: (C) Village
      Explanation: The village remained the fundamental unit of production and social organization.

    1. Medieval Indian society was primarily —
      (A) Industrial (B) Agrarian (C) Urban (D) Nomadic
      Answer: (B) Agrarian
      Explanation: Agriculture was the main occupation and revenue source.

    1. Urban society in medieval India developed due to —
      (A) Industrialization (B) Trade and crafts (C) Agriculture (D) Colonization
      Answer: (B) Trade and crafts
      Explanation: Growth of towns was linked to crafts, trade, and administration.

    1. ‘Panchayat’ in a village functioned as —
      (A) Religious group (B) Judicial and administrative body (C) Guild (D) Market council
      Answer: (B) Judicial and administrative body.

    1. The ‘Ulema’ class consisted of —
      (A) Warriors (B) Traders (C) Religious scholars and jurists (D) Farmers
      Answer: (C) Religious scholars and jurists
      Explanation: Ulemas interpreted Sharia and advised rulers.

    1. The highest-ranking class under the Delhi Sultanate was —
      (A) Peasantry (B) Nobility (C) Artisans (D) Traders
      Answer: (B) Nobility
      Explanation: Nobles (umara) held power, wealth, and land grants (iqtas).

    1. The term ‘Raiyat’ referred to —
      (A) Soldiers (B) Peasants (C) Zamindars (D) Traders
      Answer: (B) Peasants
      Explanation: Raiyats were cultivators paying land revenue.

    1. The language that developed due to Hindu–Muslim interaction was —
      (A) Sanskrit (B) Arabic (C) Urdu (D) Pali
      Answer: (C) Urdu
      Explanation: Urdu (Hindavi) evolved from Persian and local dialects.

    1. Sufism in India emphasized —
      (A) Wealth (B) Love and devotion to God (C) Ritual sacrifice (D) Political power
      Answer: (B) Love and devotion to God.

    1. ‘Khanqahs’ were —
      (A) Palaces (B) Sufi monasteries (C) Mosques (D) Temples
      Answer: (B) Sufi monasteries
      Explanation: Centres of spiritual training and charity.

    1. Sufism was introduced to India by —
      (A) Timurids (B) Turks (C) Arabs (D) Mongols
      Answer: (B) Turks
      Explanation: Along with Turkish conquest, Sufi orders spread.

    1. Founder of Chishti order in India —
      (A) Shaikh Nizamuddin (B) Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (C) Shaikh Salim (D) Ahmad Sirhindi
      Answer: (B) Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
      Explanation: Established the order at Ajmer in 12th century.

    1. Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya’s famous disciple was —
      (A) Amir Khusrau (B) Kabir (C) Mirabai (D) Tulsidas
      Answer: (A) Amir Khusrau
      Explanation: Khusrau was poet–musician who spread Sufi message through art.

    1. The Chishti saints believed in —
      (A) Wealth accumulation (B) Renunciation, love and tolerance (C) Military expansion (D) Ascetic isolation
      Answer: (B) Renunciation, love and tolerance.

    1. The Suhrawardi order was founded in —
      (A) Multan (B) Ajmer (C) Delhi (D) Pandua
      Answer: (A) Multan
      Explanation: Founded by Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya.

    1. Ahmad Sirhindi belonged to which Sufi order?
      (A) Qadiri (B) Naqshbandi (C) Chishti (D) Suhrawardi
      Answer: (B) Naqshbandi
      Explanation: He advocated orthodox Islam and opposed syncretism.

    1. ‘Langar’ system of free food at Sufi shrines symbolized —
      (A) Charity and equality (B) Luxury (C) Royal patronage (D) Education
      Answer: (A) Charity and equality.

    1. Which Sufi saint’s shrine is at Ajmer?
      (A) Shaikh Salim (B) Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (C) Nizamuddin (D) Ahmad Sirhindi
      Answer: (B) Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti.

    1. Shaikh Salim Chishti was associated with —
      (A) Aurangzeb (B) Akbar (C) Babur (D) Shah Jahan
      Answer: (B) Akbar
      Explanation: Lived at Fatehpur Sikri; Akbar named his son after him.

    1. Sufism contributed mainly to —
      (A) Feudal economy (B) Hindu–Muslim cultural synthesis (C) Political unification (D) Economic reforms
      Answer: (B) Hindu–Muslim cultural synthesis.

    1. ‘Qalandars’ were —
      (A) Wandering mystics rejecting material life (B) Soldiers (C) Merchants (D) Judges
      Answer: (A) Wandering mystics rejecting material life.

    1. Concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujud means —
      (A) Reincarnation (B) Unity of existence (C) Multiple gods (D) Soul migration
      Answer: (B) Unity of existence.

    1. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was also known as —
      (A) Mujaddid Alf Sani (B) Pir of Multan (C) Fakir of Delhi (D) Sultan-ul-Auliya
      Answer: (A) Mujaddid Alf Sani
      Explanation: “Reformer of the Second Millennium.”

    1. The Qadiri order in India was popularized by —
      (A) Miyan Mir (B) Khusrau (C) Muinuddin (D) Sirhindi
      Answer: (A) Miyan Mir
      Explanation: He performed foundation ceremony of the Golden Temple.

    1. Main teaching of Sufism —
      (A) Caste purity (B) Love and devotion to God (C) Ascetic violence (D) Orthodoxy
      Answer: (B) Love and devotion to God.

    🕉️ SECTION B — BHAKTI & SIKH MOVEMENTS (26–50)

    1. The main aim of the Bhakti Movement was —
      (A) Political unity (B) Social reform through devotion (C) Religious conversion (D) Ritual promotion
      Answer: (B) Social reform through devotion.

    1. Bhakti saints opposed —
      (A) Monotheism (B) Ritualism and caste system (C) Music (D) Education
      Answer: (B) Ritualism and caste system.

    1. The earliest Bhakti saints were the —
      (A) Nayanars and Alvars (B) Kabir and Nanak (C) Sufis (D) Tulsidas and Mirabai
      Answer: (A) Nayanars and Alvars.

    1. The Nayanars were devotees of —
      (A) Vishnu (B) Shiva (C) Shakti (D) Krishna
      Answer: (B) Shiva.

    1. Basava founded which sect?
      (A) Lingayat / Virashaiva (B) Shaiva Siddhanta (C) Vaikhanasa (D) Shakta
      Answer: (A) Lingayat / Virashaiva.

    1. Ramananda preached Bhakti in —
      (A) Sanskrit (B) Persian (C) Hindi (D) Tamil
      Answer: (C) Hindi
      Explanation: He used vernacular language to reach common people.

    1. Kabir’s poems are collected in —
      (A) Bijak (B) Ramcharitmanas (C) Adi Granth (D) Sursagar
      Answer: (A) Bijak.

    1. Kabir was a disciple of —
      (A) Ramananda (B) Chaitanya (C) Nanak (D) Nizamuddin
      Answer: (A) Ramananda.

    1. Kabir’s philosophy emphasized —
      (A) One God and rejection of rituals (B) Idol worship (C) Caste purity (D) Vedic orthodoxy
      Answer: (A) One God and rejection of rituals.

    1. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was a saint of —
      (A) Vaishnavism (B) Shaivism (C) Shaktism (D) Jainism
      Answer: (A) Vaishnavism
      Explanation: He spread Krishna-bhakti through kirtans in Bengal.

    1. Mirabai was a devotee of —
      (A) Rama (B) Krishna (C) Vishnu (D) Shiva
      Answer: (B) Krishna.

    1. Tulsidas composed —
      (A) Ramcharitmanas (B) Gita Govinda (C) Bijak (D) Akbarnama
      Answer: (A) Ramcharitmanas.

    1. Surdas was a devotee of —
      (A) Rama (B) Vishnu (C) Krishna (D) Durga
      Answer: (C) Krishna.

    1. Guru Nanak’s famous saying “Na koi Hindu, na Musalman” emphasized —
      (A) Religious unity (B) Political equality (C) Atheism (D) Superiority of one faith
      Answer: (A) Religious unity.

    1. Guru Nanak founded —
      (A) Sikhism (B) Jainism (C) Shaivism (D) Arya Samaj
      Answer: (A) Sikhism.

    1. Guru Nanak’s teachings are compiled in —
      (A) Adi Granth (B) Bijak (C) Ramcharitmanas (D) Sursagar
      Answer: (A) Adi Granth.

    1. Guru Arjan Dev compiled the —
      (A) Adi Granth (B) Guru Granth Sahib (C) Dasam Granth (D) Vachana
      Answer: (A) Adi Granth.

    1. The ‘Khalsa’ was founded by —
      (A) Guru Nanak (B) Guru Gobind Singh (C) Guru Arjan (D) Guru Amar Das
      Answer: (B) Guru Gobind Singh.

    1. The year of founding of Khalsa was —
      (A) 1604 (B) 1658 (C) 1699 (D) 1707
      Answer: (C) 1699.

    1. The Khalsa was founded at —
      (A) Amritsar (B) Anandpur Sahib (C) Patna (D) Lahore
      Answer: (B) Anandpur Sahib.

    1. The five symbols (K’s) of Khalsa do not include —
      (A) Kesh (B) Kachha (C) Kirpan (D) Kalgi
      Answer: (D) Kalgi.

    1. Guru Hargobind introduced the concept of —
      (A) Miri and Piri (B) Sati (C) Devadasi (D) Purdah
      Answer: (A) Miri and Piri
      Explanation: Represented temporal and spiritual authority.

    1. Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed by —
      (A) Akbar (B) Jahangir (C) Aurangzeb (D) Babur
      Answer: (C) Aurangzeb.

    1. Main principle of Sikhism —
      (A) Polytheism (B) One God, equality, honest work (C) Idol worship (D) Ritualism
      Answer: (B) One God, equality, honest work.

    1. Sikhism rejected —
      (A) Caste system and idol worship (B) Work and family (C) Honesty (D) Community life
      Answer: (A) Caste system and idol worship.

  • UGC NET History UNIT-6 SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA (1200–1750 CE)

    1️⃣ SOCIAL ORGANISATION AND STRUCTURE

    General Features

    • Medieval Indian society was hierarchical, agrarian, and religious in outlook.

    • Caste (varna-jati) remained the basic unit of social identity, but mobility increased through trade, service, and conversion.

    • Urbanisation under the Sultanate and Mughals created new classes — nobles, soldiers, clerks, artisans, and merchants.

    • Persian–Islamic ideas of equality before God interacted with the Hindu social order, producing syncretic cultural spaces.

    ✳️ Rural Structure

    • Village = basic socio-economic unit; largely self-sufficient.

    • Officials:

      • Patel / Muqaddam – headman.

      • Patwari / Qanungo – record keeper.

      • Chaudhuri / Amil – revenue collector.

    • Peasantry (raiyat) formed the backbone; classes ranged from owner-cultivators to share-croppers and labourers.

    • Non-cultivating groups – smiths, weavers, potters, barbers, washermen – essential to village life.

    ✳️ Urban Society

    • Towns = centres of administration, trade, and crafts.

    • Multicultural population – Persian officials, Afghan soldiers, Hindu traders, Jain bankers, artisans of all communities.

    • Guild-like organisations (panchayats, mahajans) regulated crafts and trade.

    ✳️ Social Classes

    Category Characteristics
    Ruling Class Sultans, nobles, mansabdars, zamindars; enjoyed political and economic power.
    Religious Class

    Ulemas, Brahmins, Sufis, Pandits — interpreters of faith and law.
    Mercantile Class

    Bohras, Banias, Multanis, Marwaris, Chettis; financed temples, mosques, and state loans.
    Professional Class

    Physicians, teachers, scribes, poets, musicians; mediated between elite and common folk.
    Artisans & Peasants

    Largest section; supported entire economic structure.

    2️⃣ THE SUFIS – ORDERS, BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

    ✳️ Nature of Sufism

    • Mystical dimension of Islam focusing on inner experience, love of God, and moral purification.

    • Belief in Wahdat-ul-Wujud (unity of existence).

    • Khanqah (monastery) served as social-spiritual centre – provided food, shelter, and counsel.

    • Adopted Indian idioms and music (sama/qawwali) to reach common people.

    ✳️ Major Orders (Silsilas)

    Order Founder / Early Saint Core Ideas Main Centre
    Chishti Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer)

    Love, tolerance, poverty (faqr), service to humanity.

    		 Ajmer, Delhi, Fatehpur Sikri
    Suhrawardi Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya

    Active life, acceptance of royal patronage.

    		 Multan
    Qadiri

    Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani (Baghdad)

    		 Strict adherence to Sharia, moral discipline. Delhi, Punjab
    Naqshbandi Khwaja Baqi Billah, Ahmad Sirhindi

    Orthodoxy; silent meditation; opposed syncretism.

    		 Lahore, Delhi

    ✳️ Leading Saints & Teachings

    • Muinuddin Chishti: compassion, service; shrine = Ajmer Sharif.

    • Nizamuddin Auliya: “Love all, hate none”; attracted Hindus & Muslims alike.

    • Shaikh Salim Chishti: adviser to Akbar.

    • Nasiruddin Chiragh Delhi: last great Chishti of Delhi.

    • Ahmad Sirhindi: reformer; upheld Islamic purity against Akbar’s liberalism.

    ✳️ Social Impact

    • Broke barriers of caste & creed.

    • Helped growth of Urdu, Hindavi literature.

    • Promoted charity (langar) and syncretic ethics influencing Bhakti poets.

    3️⃣ THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

    ✳️ Essence

    • Stressed personal devotion (bhakti) over ritual or priestly mediation.

    • Preached oneness of God, equality of all, love and surrender.

    • Encouraged worship in vernacular languages, creating regional literatures.

    ✳️ Phases

    • Early Bhakti (South India) – 6ᵗʰ–9ᵗʰ centuries: Alvars (Vaishnava) & Nayanars (Shaiva).

    • Later Bhakti (North India) – 14ᵗʰ–17ᵗʰ centuries: Ramananda, Kabir, Nanak, Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas.

    ✳️ Doctrinal Varieties

    Sect Deity Central Idea
    Shaivism Shiva Devotion through asceticism & ritual purity.
    Vaishnavism

    Vishnu / Krishna / Rama

    		 Love (prem-bhakti), surrender (prapatti).
    Shaktism Goddess (Devi) Worship of divine feminine power (shakti).

    ✳️ Important Saints – North India

    Saint Teachings / Works
    Ramananda Opened Bhakti to all castes; preached in Hindi.
    Kabir

    “God is one”; condemned both Hindu & Muslim orthodoxy.
    Guru Nanak Unity of mankind; honest work & sharing.
    Surdas

    Krishna devotion; Sursagar.
    Tulsidas Ramcharitmanas; Rama as ideal man.
    Mirabai

    Spiritual love of Krishna; defied gender norms.
    Dadu Dayal Religious harmony; simplicity in life.

    ✳️ South India Saints

    Group Leading Figures Contribution
    Alvars Nammalvar, Andal, Periyalvar Devotional Tamil hymns – Divya Prabandham.
    Nayanars Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar

    Popularized Tamil Shaiva bhakti.
    Virashaivas (Lingayats) Basava, Akka Mahadevi

    Rejected caste, promoted equality & monotheism.

    ✳️ Impact

    • Weakened caste rigidity and ritualism.

    • Stimulated vernacular literatures (Hindi, Marathi, Kannada, Tamil).

    • Created moral foundation for religious tolerance in Indian culture.

    4️⃣ THE SIKH MOVEMENT

    ✳️ Guru Nanak Dev (1469 – 1539)

    • Taught Ik Onkar (one God), truth, equality, honest living, sharing wealth.

    • Opposed caste, superstition, and empty ritual.

    • Organised disciples (Sangats); established Kartarpur.

    ✳️ Successive Gurus

    Guru Contribution
    Guru Angad Dev Standardised Gurmukhi script.
    Guru Amar Das Instituted Langar (community kitchen).
    Guru Ram Das Founded Amritsar.
    Guru Arjan Dev Compiled Adi Granth (1604); martyred by Jahangir.
    Guru Hargobind

    Introduced Miri-Piri (temporal + spiritual authority).
    Guru Tegh Bahadur Martyred for protecting religious freedom.
    Guru Gobind Singh

    Created Khalsa (1699); militarised community; ended personal guruship.

    ✳️ The Khalsa

    • Initiated by Guru Gobind Singh at Anandpur Sahib.

    • Five Ks – Kesh, Kangha, Kara, Kirpan, Kachha.

    • Values – courage, discipline, equality, self-sacrifice.

    ✳️ Impact

    • Created a distinct community (Panth).

    • Blended spiritual devotion and political courage.

    • Laid foundations of Sikh socio-political identity in Punjab.

    5️⃣ SOCIAL CLASSIFICATION AND RURAL LIFE

    ✳️ Classes

    Group Description
    Ruling Elites Sultans, Mughals, Rajput kings; maintained armies, built monuments.
    Ulema / Brahmins

    Custodians of religious knowledge; some acted as judges & teachers.
    Mercantile Groups Traders & bankers; financed state & pilgrimages.
    Artisans & Craftsmen

    Organized in guilds; highly skilled (weavers, metal-workers, potters).
    Peasantry

    Diverse – from rich raiyats to landless labourers; subject to taxation.

    ✳️ Rural Hierarchy

    • Zamindar → Patel → Patwari → Cultivator → Labourer.

    • Village life revolved around customary law and panchayat.

    • Social mobility through military service or urban migration.

    6️⃣ POSITION OF WOMEN

    ✳️ Status and Restrictions

    • Patriarchal society; women’s roles confined largely to domestic sphere.

    • Among elites, purdah (zanana) and polygamy common.

    • Practices such as sati & child marriage persisted.

    ✳️ Notable Women

    • Razia Sultan – only woman ruler of Delhi.

    • Nur Jahan – powerful empress; issued farmans.

    • Chand Bibi – defended Ahmadnagar against Mughals.

    • Mirabai, Akka Mahadevi, Andal – women saints advocating spiritual equality.

    ✳️ Devadasi System

    • In South India, women dedicated to temples as dancers & musicians.

    • Initially religiously esteemed; later became exploitative.

    ✳️ Education of Women

    • Limited to elites and saints’ circles.

    • Notable authors – Gulbadan Begum (Humayun-nama), Jahanara Begum (Sufi writings).

    7️⃣ EDUCATION AND CENTRES OF LEARNING

    ✳️ Islamic System

    Institution Subjects / Function
    Maktab Elementary – Qur’an, Persian, arithmetic.
    Madrasa

    Higher – theology, law (fiqh), logic, astronomy, medicine.
    Daftar Khannas State record offices – training in administration.

    ✳️ Hindu & Regional Centres

    • Pathshalas, Tols, Agraharas, Mathas taught Sanskrit, Nyaya, Vedanta, arts.

    • South India – Kanchipuram, Sringeri, Mysore.

    • North India – Varanasi, Jaunpur (“Shiraz of India”), Bidar.

    ✳️ Curriculum

    • Religion, ethics, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, music, and Persian literature.

    8️⃣ FINE ARTS – PAINTING AND MUSIC

    ✳️ Painting Schools

    School Characteristics Patron Rulers
    Mughal Realism, portraiture, Persian-Indian blend; themes – court life, nature. Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan
    Rajasthani

    Bold colours, devotional themes (Radha-Krishna).

    		 Rajput courts – Mewar, Amber
    Pahari

    Miniatures, romantic and spiritual tone; delicate lines.

    		 Kangra, Guler schools
    Garhwali Local hill scenery, folk themes. Garhwal rulers

    ✳️ Music

    • Two streams – Hindustani (North) and Carnatic (South).

    • Amir Khusrau – credited with qawwali, tabla, sitar innovation.

    • Akbar’s Navratnas – Tansen greatly advanced Hindustani raga system.

    • Court music combined Persian & Indian styles; growth of dhrupad and khayal forms.

    9️⃣ ART AND ARCHITECTURE

    ✳️ Indo-Islamic Architecture

    • Features: arches, domes, minarets, calligraphy, geometric designs.

    • Blended Islamic techniques with Hindu craftsmanship.

    • Early examples – Qutub Minar, Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, Alai Darwaza.

    ✳️ Tughlaq Architecture

    • Massive, simple, sloping walls; use of grey sandstone – Tughlaqabad Fort, Firoz Shah Kotla.

    ✳️ Mughal Architecture

    Emperor Masterpieces Distinct Feature
    Akbar

    Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza

    		 Red sandstone; Perso-Rajput fusion
    Jahangir Itimad-ud-Daula Tomb

    Marble inlay; natural motifs
    Shah Jahan

    Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid

    		 Perfection in white marble; symmetry
    Aurangzeb Badshahi Mosque (Lahore) Simpler, austere style

    ✳️ Regional Styles

    Region Major Examples
    Deccan Char Minar & Mecca Masjid (Hyderabad), Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur).
    Rajasthan

    Forts of Chittor, Amber, Jaisalmer; Havelis with frescoes.
    South India

    Hampi temples (Vijayanagara), Meenakshi Temple (Madurai).

    ✳️ Gardens & Shrines

    • Mughal Gardens – Persian Charbagh layout with water channels & pavilions (Shalimar Bagh, Nishat Bagh).

    • Sufi Dargahs – Ajmer, Delhi, Pandua as spiritual centres.

    • Hindu Temples – stone and bronze art of South & Odisha.

    • Maratha Architecture – Hill forts (Raigad, Pratapgad) and temple shrines.