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Tag: UGC NET History Unit – 1 Sources and Early Indian History

  • UGC NET History Unit-1 Expected Questions

    UNIT – 1 : MCQs with Solutions and Explanations

    Q1. Which of the following pre-historic sites is known for the mass production of microliths?

    (1) Adamgarh
    (2) Bagor
    (3) Nalagonda
    (4) Sanganakallu

    Correct Answer: (2) Bagor
    Explanation:
    Bagor (Rajasthan) is a major microlithic site showing large-scale production of small stone blades used as tools. It represents a Late Stone Age culture with early domestication evidence.
    This exact question appears in the uploaded paper

    Q2. Which of the following objects are known from the Copper-Hoard sites?

    (a) Anthropomorphic figures
    (b) Antennae swords
    (c) Harpoons
    (d) Flat Celts

    Code:
    (1) (a), (b) and (c)
    (2) (b), (c) and (d)
    (3) (a), (c) and (d)
    (4) (a), (b), (c) and (d)

    Correct Answer: (4) (a), (b), (c) and (d)
    Explanation:
    Copper hoards of the Ganga-Yamuna region contain diverse tools and weapons including anthropomorphic figures, antennae-hilted swords, harpoons and flat celts indicating technological improvement in Chalcolithic India.

    .

    Q3. Archaeological sites providing evidence about water management by Harappans include:

    (a) Dholavira
    (b) Mohenjodaro
    (c) Harappa
    (d) Kalibangan

    Options:
    (1) (a) and (b)
    (2) (b) and (c)
    (3) (c) and (d)
    (4) (a) and (c)

    Correct Answer: (1) (a) and (b)
    Explanation:
    Dholavira shows advanced water reservoirs and dams, while Mohenjodaro reveals drainage systems and a Great Bath, demonstrating civic planning and hydraulic engineering.
    Retrieved from uploaded question

    Q4. Which of the following Janas are mentioned in the Rigveda?

    (a) Yadu
    (b) Puru
    (c) Chedi
    (d) Matsya

    Options:
    (1) (a) and (b)
    (2) (b) and (c)
    (3) (c) and (d)
    (4) (a), (b), (c) and (d)

    Correct Answer: (4) (a), (b), (c) and (d)
    Explanation:
    Rigveda mentions many early tribes including Yadu, Puru, Chedi and Matsya, who fought for control over the Saraswati-Sindhu region.

    .

    Q5. The important official next to the king during the Vedic age was:

    (1) Govikartana
    (2) Purohita
    (3) Queen
    (4) Senani

    Correct Answer: (2) Purohita
    Explanation:
    Purohita (royal priest) was the closest advisor to the king, especially in religious and political matters. He performed sacrifices and legitimised kingship. 

    .

    Q6. Which among the following Samskaras were pre-natal?

    (a) Garbhadhana
    (b) Pumsavana
    (c) Simantonnayana
    (d) Sahadharma-Charini-Samyoga

    Options:
    (1) (a), (b), (c)
    (2) (b), (c), (d)
    (3) (a), (c)
    (4) (a) and (d)

    Correct Answer: (1) (a), (b), (c)
    Explanation:
    These three samskaras relate to conception, protection of embryo and mental health of mother before birth. 

    Q7. Which Harappan sites are located in Baluchistan?

    (i) Dabarkot
    (ii) Sotkakhoh
    (iii) Sutkagendor
    (iv) Shortughai

    Code:
    (1) (i) and (iv)
    (2) (ii) and (iv)
    (3) (i), (ii) and (iii)
    (4) (ii), (iii) and (iv)

    Correct Answer: (3) (i), (ii) and (iii)
    Explanation:
    Dabarkot, Sotkakhoh and Sutkagendor lie in Baluchistan, while Shortughai is in Afghanistan.
    Repeated PYQ

    .

    Unit 1 Coverage Summary

    Based on uploaded syllabus

    , Unit 1 covers:

    • Sources: Archaeological, epigraphic, numismatic & literary

    • Prehistoric societies: Neolithic & Chalcolithic

    • Indus Valley Civilization

    • Vedic Age & tribal polities

    • Mahajanapadas & 2nd urbanisation

  • UGC NET History Unit-1 Sources and Early Indian History MCQs

    Part A – Archaeological Sources (Q1–25)

    Q1. Archaeology primarily deals with:
    (A) Written records
    (B) Oral traditions
    (C) Material remains of the past
    (D) Religious texts
    Answer: (C)
    Explanation: Archaeology reconstructs history through material evidence such as tools, pottery, monuments, and artifacts.

    Q2. The systematic survey of an area to locate archaeological sites is called:
    (A) Excavation
    (B) Exploration
    (C) Epigraphy
    (D) Numismatics
    Answer: (B)

    Q3. The scientific method of uncovering buried remains layer by layer is:
    (A) Exploration
    (B) Excavation
    (C) Surveying
    (D) Mapping
    Answer: (B)

    Q4. Stratigraphy helps archaeologists determine:
    (A) The language of inscriptions
    (B) The chronological sequence of layers
    (C) The religious beliefs of people
    (D) The trade routes of ancient times
    Answer: (B)

    Q5. Who is regarded as the “Father of Indian Archaeology”?
    (A) R.D. Banerjee
    (B) Alexander Cunningham
    (C) Mortimer Wheeler
    (D) James Prinsep
    Answer: (B)

    Q6. James Prinsep is famous for:
    (A) Discovering Harappa
    (B) Deciphering the Brahmi script
    (C) Excavating Mohenjo-Daro
    (D) Dating Neolithic sites
    Answer: (B)

    Q7. Epigraphy is the study of:
    (A) Coins
    (B) Pottery
    (C) Inscriptions
    (D) Monuments
    Answer: (C)

    Q8. The earliest deciphered inscriptions in India are those of:
    (A) Chandragupta Maurya
    (B) Ashoka
    (C) Harsha
    (D) Samudragupta
    Answer: (B)

    Q9. The study of coins is known as:
    (A) Paleography
    (B) Numismatics
    (C) Epigraphy
    (D) Stratigraphy
    Answer: (B)

    Q10. The earliest coins in India were:
    (A) Gupta coins
    (B) Indo-Greek coins
    (C) Punch-marked coins
    (D) Roman coins
    Answer: (C)
    Explanation: Punch-marked silver coins appear around 6th century BCE.

    Q11. The earliest evidence of archaeology-based history writing in India began under:
    (A) British rule
    (B) Mughal rule
    (C) Mauryas
    (D) Delhi Sultanate
    Answer: (A)

    Q12. The first Harappan site to be excavated was:
    (A) Mohenjo-Daro
    (B) Lothal
    (C) Harappa
    (D) Dholavira
    Answer: (C)

    Q13. Who excavated Mohenjo-Daro?
    (A) R.D. Banerjee
    (B) Daya Ram Sahni
    (C) Alexander Cunningham
    (D) Stuart Piggott
    Answer: (A)

    Q14. Radiocarbon dating is used to determine:
    (A) Chemical composition
    (B) Age of organic materials
    (C) Metal purity
    (D) Astronomical alignment
    Answer: (B)

    Q15. Thermoluminescence dating is particularly useful for:
    (A) Stone tools
    (B) Iron artifacts
    (C) Pottery and burnt clay
    (D) Gold ornaments
    Answer: (C)

    Q16. Dendrochronology is based on:
    (A) Counting tree rings
    (B) Measuring metal decay
    (C) Fossil analysis
    (D) Radioactive isotopes
    Answer: (A)

    Q17. The Ashokan edicts were engraved mostly in:
    (A) Persian
    (B) Prakrit and Greek
    (C) Sanskrit
    (D) Tamil
    Answer: (B)

    Q18. The Hathigumpha inscription is related to:
    (A) Ashoka
    (B) Kharavela
    (C) Samudragupta
    (D) Rudradaman
    Answer: (B)

    Q19. Which inscription gives a detailed list of Samudragupta’s conquests?
    (A) Mehrauli Iron Pillar
    (B) Allahabad Pillar Inscription
    (C) Hathigumpha Inscription
    (D) Junagadh Inscription
    Answer: (B)

    Q20. Numismatic evidence helps mainly in:
    (A) Religious studies
    (B) Economic and political history
    (C) Linguistics
    (D) Astronomy
    Answer: (B)

    Q21. The author of Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum was:
    (A) John Marshall
    (B) Alexander Cunningham
    (C) James Burgess
    (D) F.W. Thomas
    Answer: (B)

    Q22. The earliest known Indian coins are made of:
    (A) Gold
    (B) Silver
    (C) Copper
    (D) Lead
    Answer: (B)

    Q23. The most scientific method of dating archaeological sites is:
    (A) Radiocarbon dating
    (B) Relative chronology
    (C) Stratigraphy alone
    (D) Typology
    Answer: (A)

    Q24. Exploration and excavation in India are conducted by:
    (A) ASI (Archaeological Survey of India)
    (B) Indian Museum
    (C) Indian Council of Historical Research
    (D) National Archives of India
    Answer: (A)

    Q25. The founder of ASI was:
    (A) Mortimer Wheeler
    (B) Alexander Cunningham
    (C) Daya Ram Sahni
    (D) V.S. Agrawala
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part B – Literary and Foreign Sources (Q26–45)

    Q26. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of:
    (A) Ritual manuals
    (B) Hymns to deities
    (C) Philosophical essays
    (D) Law codes
    Answer: (B)

    Q27. The Vedas are considered:
    (A) Primary literary sources
    (B) Secondary sources
    (C) Secular documents
    (D) Myths only
    Answer: (A)

    Q28. The Tripitakas are associated with:
    (A) Jainism
    (B) Buddhism
    (C) Hinduism
    (D) Ajivikas
    Answer: (B)

    Q29. The Buddhist Jataka stories illustrate:
    (A) Agricultural methods
    (B) Previous lives of Buddha and moral tales
    (C) Political administration
    (D) Sanskrit grammar
    Answer: (B)

    Q30. The Arthashastra is attributed to:
    (A) Manu
    (B) Chanakya (Kautilya)
    (C) Panini
    (D) Kalidasa
    Answer: (B)

    Q31. The Manusmriti is a text dealing with:
    (A) Medicine
    (B) Law and social order
    (C) Astronomy
    (D) Philosophy
    Answer: (B)

    Q32. Panini’s Ashtadhyayi is important for:
    (A) Economy
    (B) Grammar and linguistics
    (C) Political theory
    (D) Mathematics
    Answer: (B)

    Q33. The problem with dating ancient Indian texts arises mainly due to:
    (A) Lack of manuscripts
    (B) Oral transmission over centuries
    (C) Political censorship
    (D) Translation errors
    Answer: (B)

    Q34. Megasthenes wrote:
    (A) Indica
    (B) Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
    (C) Kitab al-Hind
    (D) Geographia
    Answer: (A)

    Q35. The Chinese pilgrim who visited during Harsha’s reign was:
    (A) Fa-Hien
    (B) Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang)
    (C) I-Tsing
    (D) Al-Biruni
    Answer: (B)

    Q36. Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of:
    (A) Harsha
    (B) Ashoka
    (C) Chandragupta II
    (D) Kanishka
    Answer: (C)

    Q37. Al-Biruni came to India with:
    (A) Alexander
    (B) Mahmud of Ghazni
    (C) Ibn Battuta
    (D) Timur
    Answer: (B)

    Q38. Kitab al-Hind is a work on:
    (A) Philosophy
    (B) Indian society and sciences
    (C) Trade routes
    (D) Religious rituals
    Answer: (B)

    Q39. Ibn Battuta was from:
    (A) Persia
    (B) Morocco
    (C) Greece
    (D) Turkey
    Answer: (B)

    Q40. Greek historian who accompanied Alexander was:
    (A) Herodotus
    (B) Arrian
    (C) Ptolemy
    (D) Pliny
    Answer: (B)

    Q41. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives information on:
    (A) Buddhist philosophy
    (B) Roman trade with India
    (C) Vedic rituals
    (D) Gupta polity
    Answer: (B)

    Q42. Indigenous literature refers to:
    (A) Foreign accounts
    (B) Texts written within India
    (C) Inscriptions only
    (D) Translations
    Answer: (B)

    Q43. The Puranas are classified as:
    (A) Vedic hymns
    (B) Secondary religious literature
    (C) Grammar books
    (D) Buddhist chronicles
    Answer: (B)

    Q44. Arthashastra mentions which administrative division?
    (A) District
    (B) Janapada and Vishaya
    (C) Empire and Province
    (D) Gram and Sabha
    Answer: (B)

    Q45. The term “Itihasa” in ancient Indian context refers to:
    (A) Fiction
    (B) History in the form of epics
    (C) Mythology
    (D) Ritual books
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part C – Prehistoric & Protohistoric Cultures (Q46–60)

    Q46. The Neolithic phase is characterized by:
    (A) Nomadic hunting
    (B) Food production and polished tools
    (C) Metal usage
    (D) Writing system
    Answer: (B)

    Q47. The earliest evidence of Neolithic settlement in the subcontinent is found at:
    (A) Koldihwa
    (B) Mehrgarh
    (C) Inamgaon
    (D) Chirand
    Answer: (B)

    Q48. The Neolithic site of Burzahom is located in:
    (A) Kashmir
    (B) Bihar
    (C) Tamil Nadu
    (D) Rajasthan
    Answer: (A)

    Q49. Chalcolithic cultures used:
    (A) Only stone tools
    (B) Copper and stone implements
    (C) Bronze weapons only
    (D) Iron implements
    Answer: (B)

    Q50. The Chalcolithic site Inamgaon is situated in:
    (A) Madhya Pradesh
    (B) Maharashtra
    (C) Rajasthan
    (D) Gujarat
    Answer: (B)

    Q51. The term “Neolithic Revolution” refers to:
    (A) Discovery of fire
    (B) Beginning of agriculture and domestication
    (C) Use of iron
    (D) Writing system
    Answer: (B)

    Q52. The Neolithic people of Koldihwa cultivated:
    (A) Wheat
    (B) Rice
    (C) Cotton
    (D) Barley
    Answer: (B)

    Q53. Chalcolithic pottery was often:
    (A) Grey ware
    (B) Painted ware
    (C) Black ware only
    (D) Plain red ware
    Answer: (B)

    Q54. The economy of Neolithic and Chalcolithic people was based on:
    (A) Trade only
    (B) Agriculture, cattle rearing, and barter exchange
    (C) Industrial production
    (D) Metallurgy alone
    Answer: (B)

    Q55. The term “Megalith” refers to:
    (A) Small beads
    (B) Large stone burial markers
    (C) Painted caves
    (D) Copper tools
    Answer: (B)

    Q56. The South Indian Megalithic culture is known for use of:
    (A) Gold
    (B) Iron
    (C) Bronze
    (D) Silver
    Answer: (B)

    Q57. Evidence of earliest rice cultivation comes from:
    (A) Inamgaon
    (B) Koldihwa
    (C) Lothal
    (D) Navdatoli
    Answer: (B)

    Q58. The site of Daimabad yielded which unique find?
    (A) Stone tools
    (B) Bronze chariot and animals
    (C) Iron sword
    (D) Painted pottery
    Answer: (B)

    Q59. Neolithic sites in northeast India include:
    (A) Chirand
    (B) Daojali Hading
    (C) Inamgaon
    (D) Navdatoli
    Answer: (B)

    Q60. The key difference between Neolithic and Chalcolithic phases was:
    (A) Use of fire
    (B) Use of copper along with stone tools
    (C) Agriculture
    (D) Cattle rearing
    Answer: (B)

    Part D – Indus / Harappan Civilization (Q61–80)

    Q61. The Indus Civilization flourished approximately between:
    (A) 4000–3000 BCE
    (B) 3300–1300 BCE
    (C) 2600–1900 BCE
    (D) 1200–600 BCE
    Answer: (C)
    Explanation: The Mature Harappan Phase (2600–1900 BCE) marks the height of urban development.

    Q62. The Indus Civilization is also known as:
    (A) Aryan Civilization
    (B) Chalcolithic Civilization
    (C) Harappan Civilization
    (D) Neolithic Civilization
    Answer: (C)

    Q63. The first Harappan site discovered was:
    (A) Mohenjo-Daro
    (B) Harappa
    (C) Kalibangan
    (D) Lothal
    Answer: (B)

    Q64. Harappa was excavated by:
    (A) John Marshall
    (B) Daya Ram Sahni
    (C) R.D. Banerjee
    (D) Alexander Cunningham
    Answer: (B)

    Q65. Mohenjo-Daro was excavated by:
    (A) R.D. Banerjee
    (B) Daya Ram Sahni
    (C) John Marshall
    (D) Mortimer Wheeler
    Answer: (A)

    Q66. The largest Harappan site in India is:
    (A) Lothal
    (B) Kalibangan
    (C) Rakhigarhi
    (D) Dholavira
    Answer: (C)

    Q67. The Harappan Civilization covered modern regions of:
    (A) India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka
    (B) Pakistan, northwest India, and parts of Afghanistan
    (C) Central Asia
    (D) South India
    Answer: (B)

    Q68. The town planning of Harappa was based on:
    (A) Circular pattern
    (B) Grid pattern
    (C) Random streets
    (D) Radial layout
    Answer: (B)

    Q69. The Great Bath was discovered at:
    (A) Harappa
    (B) Lothal
    (C) Mohenjo-Daro
    (D) Kalibangan
    Answer: (C)

    Q70. The dockyard of the Harappan Civilization is found at:
    (A) Kalibangan
    (B) Dholavira
    (C) Lothal
    (D) Banawali
    Answer: (C)
    Explanation: Lothal (Gujarat) had a brick dockyard showing maritime trade.

    Q71. The Harappans used which metal extensively?
    (A) Iron
    (B) Copper and bronze
    (C) Aluminium
    (D) Steel
    Answer: (B)

    Q72. Which site has evidence of a “stadium-like” structure?
    (A) Dholavira
    (B) Lothal
    (C) Harappa
    (D) Chanhudaro
    Answer: (A)

    Q73. The script of the Harappans remains:
    (A) Fully deciphered
    (B) Partially deciphered
    (C) Undeciphered
    (D) Borrowed from Sanskrit
    Answer: (C)

    Q74. The common feature of Harappan houses was:
    (A) Wooden walls
    (B) Courtyard with bathrooms and drains
    (C) Stone pillars
    (D) Thatch roofs only
    Answer: (B)

    Q75. Evidence of fire altars and animal sacrifice comes from:
    (A) Lothal and Kalibangan
    (B) Harappa only
    (C) Dholavira
    (D) Chanhudaro
    Answer: (A)

    Q76. The principal material used for Harappan tools was:
    (A) Bronze
    (B) Iron
    (C) Stone
    (D) Steel
    Answer: (A)

    Q77. Which Harappan site provides evidence of double burial?
    (A) Rakhigarhi
    (B) Lothal
    (C) Kalibangan
    (D) Harappa
    Answer: (D)

    Q78. The most common animal depicted on Harappan seals is:
    (A) Bull
    (B) Horse
    (C) Elephant
    (D) Unicorn
    Answer: (D)
    Explanation: The one-horned unicorn motif dominates Indus seals.

    Q79. The Indus economy was primarily:
    (A) Pastoral
    (B) Agricultural and urban-industrial
    (C) Hunting-gathering
    (D) Nomadic
    Answer: (B)

    Q80. The decline of the Indus Civilization is attributed to:
    (A) Invasion only
    (B) Natural and economic factors combined
    (C) Single flood event
    (D) Political revolution
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part E – Vedic and Later Vedic Periods (Q81–90)

    Q81. The Rigveda was composed around:
    (A) 2500 BCE
    (B) 1500–1000 BCE
    (C) 800 BCE
    (D) 500 BCE
    Answer: (B)

    Q82. The main deity of Rigvedic Aryans was:
    (A) Agni
    (B) Varuna
    (C) Indra
    (D) Vishnu
    Answer: (C)

    Q83. The Aryan debate concerns:
    (A) Their religion
    (B) Their racial origin and migration
    (C) Iron usage
    (D) Decline of Harappa
    Answer: (B)

    Q84. Early Vedic society was primarily:
    (A) Urban
    (B) Agricultural
    (C) Pastoral and tribal
    (D) Industrial
    Answer: (C)

    Q85. In the Vedic polity, the king was assisted by two assemblies known as:
    (A) Sabha and Samiti
    (B) Janapada and Parishad
    (C) Gana and Sabha
    (D) Sabha and Mahasabha
    Answer: (A)

    Q86. The Varna system first finds mention in:
    (A) Atharvaveda
    (B) Rigveda (Purusha Sukta)
    (C) Yajurveda
    (D) Upanishads
    Answer: (B)

    Q87. The Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE) witnessed:
    (A) Pastoralism only
    (B) Expansion of agriculture and iron use
    (C) Nomadic migrations
    (D) Decline of kingdoms
    Answer: (B)

    Q88. The Upanishads mainly deal with:
    (A) Ritual sacrifices
    (B) Metaphysical and philosophical ideas
    (C) Warfare
    (D) Agriculture
    Answer: (B)

    Q89. The term Gotra first appears in:
    (A) Rigveda
    (B) Later Vedic texts
    (C) Puranas
    (D) Smritis
    Answer: (B)

    Q90. The introduction of iron in India facilitated:
    (A) Decline of agriculture
    (B) Forest clearing and agrarian expansion
    (C) Urban destruction
    (D) Decline of trade
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part F – Megaliths, Iron Age and Early States (Q91–95)

    Q91. The Megalithic culture is mainly found in:
    (A) South India
    (B) North India
    (C) Central Asia
    (D) Western India
    Answer: (A)

    Q92. Megaliths were primarily used for:
    (A) Religious shrines
    (B) Burial and funerary purposes
    (C) Storage of grain
    (D) Market centers
    Answer: (B)

    Q93. Iron in South India is associated with:
    (A) Harappans
    (B) Megalithic culture
    (C) Mauryan period
    (D) Neolithic settlers
    Answer: (B)

    Q94. The Megalithic people of South India used:
    (A) Painted pottery and iron weapons
    (B) Only stone tools
    (C) Bronze ornaments
    (D) Gold utensils
    Answer: (A)

    Q95. The Iron Age led to the emergence of:
    (A) First urbanization
    (B) Second urbanization and state formation
    (C) Nomadic life
    (D) Cattle herding
    Answer: (B)

    🟢 Part G – Mahajanapadas and Second Urbanization (Q96–100)

    Q96. The term “Mahajanapada” means:
    (A) Small tribe
    (B) Great territorial state
    (C) Religious sect
    (D) Trading guild
    Answer: (B)

    Q97. The Anguttara Nikaya lists how many Mahajanapadas?
    (A) 10
    (B) 12
    (C) 16
    (D) 18
    Answer: (C)

    Q98. Which among the following was a republican state?
    (A) Magadha
    (B) Kosala
    (C) Vajji
    (D) Kashi
    Answer: (C)

    Q99. The second urbanization in India (c. 600 BCE) was driven by:
    (A) Industrial revolution
    (B) Iron-based agrarian expansion and trade
    (C) Foreign invasions
    (D) Monastic activities
    Answer: (B)

    Q100. The heterodox sect founded by Gautama Buddha emphasized:
    (A) Sacrifices and rituals
    (B) Middle path and self-discipline
    (C) Fatalism
    (D) Luxury and ascetic extremes
    Answer: (B)

  • UGC NET History Unit–1 Sources and Early Indian History

    I. Negotiating the Sources of Ancient Indian History

    To reconstruct India’s early past, historians rely on both archaeological and literary sources.
    Each provides a different type of evidence — material (from the ground) and intellectual (from texts).

    🟣 1. Archaeological Sources

    Archaeology is the study of the material remains of past human life. It helps us understand prehistoric and protohistoric periods where no written records exist.

    (a) Exploration

    • The systematic survey of a region to locate archaeological sites.

    • Helps identify settlement patterns, trade routes, and distribution of cultures.

    • Example: Exploration by Alexander Cunningham, Daya Ram Sahni, and R.D. Banerjee helped locate Harappan sites like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

    (b) Excavation

    • Scientific digging of sites to uncover buried remains.

    • Provides layers (stratigraphy) that reveal chronological sequences.

    • Major excavated sites:

      • Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa (Indus Civilization)

      • Chalcolithic sites – Inamgaon, Navdatoli

      • Neolithic sites – Burzahom, Koldihwa

    (c) Epigraphy

    • Study of inscriptions engraved on stone, metal, wood, or pottery.

    • Provides direct evidence of language, administration, religion, and polity.

    • Examples:

      • Ashokan edicts (3rd century BCE) – earliest deciphered inscriptions.

      • Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela (Odisha).

      • Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta (Gupta period).

    Father of Indian Epigraphy: James Prinsep (deciphered Brahmi script in 1837).

    (d) Numismatics

    • Study of coins. Coins reveal information on economy, polity, trade, art, and religion.

    • Earliest coins: Punch-marked coins (6th century BCE).

    • Later coins bore portraits, deities, and dynastic symbols (e.g., Indo-Greek and Gupta coins).

    (e) Dating of Archaeological Sites

    Techniques used:

    1. Stratigraphy – older layers lie below younger ones.

    2. Radiocarbon (C-14) Dating – measures decay of carbon isotopes (up to 50,000 years).

    3. Thermoluminescence – for pottery and burnt clay.

    4. Dendrochronology – tree-ring dating (limited to wood-based sites).

    🟣 2. Literary Sources

    Literary sources are written texts—religious or secular—that provide insights into beliefs, institutions, and events.
    They are classified into indigenous (Indian) and foreign accounts.

    (a) Indigenous Literature

    i. Primary Literature

    • Texts created in the same period as events described.

    • Example: Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Ashokan edicts.

    ii. Secondary Literature

    • Composed after the events, interpreting or retelling history.

    • Example: Puranas, Itihasas (Ramayana, Mahabharata), Buddhist and Jain chronicles.

    iii. Religious Literature

    • Hindu: Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Epics, Puranas.

    • Buddhist: Tripitakas (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma), Jatakas.

    • Jain: Agamas, Kalpasutra.

    iv. Secular Literature

    • Includes texts on law, polity, science, grammar, and drama.

    • Example:

      • Arthashastra (Kautilya) – politics and economy.

      • Manusmriti – social and legal code.

      • Kalidasa’s plays – court life and society.

      • Panini’s Ashtadhyayi – Sanskrit grammar and social structure.

    v. Myths and Legends

    • Mythical accounts often reflect symbolic truths about social or political order.

    • Example: The story of Purusha Sukta in Rigveda reflects varna hierarchy.

    vi. Problem of Dating

    • Many ancient texts were transmitted orally for centuries before written form.

    • Thus, determining exact dates is difficult (e.g., Vedas dated between 1500–1000 BCE).

    (b) Foreign Accounts

    Foreign travelers and scholars recorded valuable information about Indian polity, economy, and culture.

    Period Visitor Origin Contribution
    4th century BCE Megasthenes Greek Indica – account of Mauryan India
    1st century CE Pliny, Ptolemy Roman Geography, trade routes
    5th century CE Fa-Hien (Faxian) China Gupta-period society and Buddhism
    7th century CE Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) China Harsha’s empire, education, Nalanda
    8th century CE I-Tsing China Buddhist monastic practices
    10th–13th century CE Al-Biruni Persia Kitab al-Hind – scientific study of India
    14th century CE Ibn Battuta Morocco Life in Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign

    These accounts supplement archaeological and literary data, though sometimes biased.

    🟢 II. Prehistoric and Protohistoric India

    🟣 1. Pastoralism and Food Production

    The transition from hunting-gathering to food production marks the Neolithic Revolution (around 7000 BCE onwards).

    (a) Neolithic Phase

    • First evidence: Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, 7000 BCE).

    • Tools: Polished stone axes, microliths, pottery.

    • Settlements: Mud-brick houses; agriculture and animal domestication (cattle, sheep, goats).

    • Sites: Burzahom (Kashmir), Koldihwa (UP), Chirand (Bihar), Daojali Hading (Assam).

    • Economy: Early cultivation of wheat, barley, rice; barter exchange.

    (b) Chalcolithic Phase (Copper-Stone Age)

    • Time: c. 2000–700 BCE.

    • Tools: Copper along with stone implements.

    • Settlements: Permanent villages; storage pits; painted pottery.

    • Major sites:

      • Inamgaon, Daimabad (Maharashtra)

      • Ahar (Rajasthan)

      • Navdatoli (MP)

    • Economy: Agriculture (millets, barley) and animal husbandry; inter-regional trade in copper and beads.

    🟢 III. The Indus / Harappan Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE)

    Origin and Extent

    • Flourished in the northwestern subcontinent – modern Pakistan and western India.

    • Spread over 1.25 million sq. km.

    • Major sites:

      • Harappa (Punjab)

      • Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh)

      • Dholavira (Gujarat)

      • Kalibangan (Rajasthan)

      • Lothal (Gujarat) – dockyard

      • Rakhigarhi (Haryana) – one of the largest sites

    Settlement Pattern

    • Well-planned urban grid system, with streets at right angles.

    • Drainage system, granaries, citadel (administrative center) and lower town (residential).

    • Standardized brick sizes indicate centralized planning.

    Craft Specialization and Economy

    • Crafts: Bead-making, pottery, metalwork, shell and ivory carving.

    • Metals: Copper, bronze, gold, silver.

    • Trade:

      • Internal: Baluchistan, Gujarat, and Punjab regions.

      • External: Mesopotamia, Oman (Magan), Bahrain (Dilmun).

      • Evidence: Seals, weights, and Mesopotamian references to “Meluhha.”

    Religion

    • Seals: Proto-Shiva (Pashupati), Mother Goddess, sacred animals.

    • Fire altars: Found at Kalibangan and Lothal.

    • Absence of temples or idols – religion likely naturalistic and fertility-based.

    Society and Polity

    • Social organization based on urban classes and occupations.

    • Absence of large royal monuments → possible merchant-administrative oligarchy.

    • Uniform weights and seals suggest centralized authority.

    Decline (After 1900 BCE)

    Possible causes:

    1. Environmental degradation and river shifts (e.g., drying of Saraswati).

    2. Floods or earthquakes.

    3. Decline in trade with Mesopotamia.

    4. Gradual desertion, not sudden destruction.

    The Indus Civilization marks the First Urbanization in India.

    🟢 IV. Vedic and Later Vedic Periods (1500–600 BCE)

    1. The Aryan Debates

    • Aryans: Indo-European-speaking pastoralists migrating from Central Asia or the Steppes.

    • Debate: Indigenous vs. Migratory origin (still discussed in modern historiography).

    2. Vedic Literature

    • Rigveda (oldest, c. 1500–1000 BCE) – hymns to gods like Indra, Agni, Varuna.

    • Later Vedic texts (1000–600 BCE): Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Upanishads.

    3. Political and Social Institutions

    Period Features
    Early Vedic Tribal polity; Raja as tribal leader; Sabha and Samiti assemblies
    Later Vedic Emergence of kingdoms (Janapadas); hereditary monarchy; taxation

    4. Theories of the State

    • Divine theory (king as god’s representative).

    • Social contract theory (Mahabharata mentions the people choosing Manu as king).

    • Dandaniti (law and punishment) as means of governance.

    5. Social Stratification

    • Varna system evolved (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra).

    • Gotra system introduced.

    • Patriarchal family with growing private property rights.

    6. Religious and Philosophical Ideas

    • Transition from ritualism (Brahmanas) to philosophical speculation (Upanishads).

    • Idea of Karma, Samsara, Moksha emerged.

    • Worship shifted from nature gods to abstract concepts like Brahman and Atman.

    7. Iron Technology and Megaliths

    • Iron introduced c. 1000 BCE → expansion of agriculture, especially in Ganga valley.

    • Megaliths (South India): Burials marked by large stones; found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala.

      • Evidence of iron use, warrior elites, and complex societies.

    🟢 V. Expansion of State System and Second Urbanization (600–300 BCE)

    1. Mahajanapadas

    • By 6th century BCE, 16 major states (Mahajanapadas) emerged:

      • Monarchies: Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vatsa

      • Republics (Gana-Sanghas): Sakyas, Mallas, Vajji, Kambojas

    Sources: Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, Jain Bhagavati Sutra.

    2. Economic and Social Developments

    • Use of iron ploughs, urban crafts, and surplus agriculture.

    • Punch-marked coins facilitated trade.

    • Rise of merchant guilds (Shrenis).

    • Formation of urban centers like Rajgir, Kaushambi, Ujjain, Vaishali → marks Second Urbanization in India.

    3. Emergence of Heterodox Sects

    (a) Jainism

    • Founded by Mahavira (6th century BCE).

    • Doctrine: Ahimsa, Aparigraha, Anekantavada.

    • Texts: Acharanga Sutra.

    (b) Buddhism

    • Founded by Gautama Buddha (563–483 BCE).

    • Teachings: Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Middle Way.

    • Texts: Tripitakas.

    (c) Ajivikas

    • Believed in Niyati (fate); emphasized strict asceticism.

    • Patronized by Bindusara and Ashoka before conversion.

    These sects challenged Vedic ritualism and Brahmanical orthodoxy, promoting ethics and equality.

    ✅ In Summary

    Theme Key Takeaways
    Sources Archaeology + Literature = Reconstruction of early India
    Prehistory Transition to agriculture (Neolithic, Chalcolithic)
    Indus Civilization Urban planning, trade, and first urbanization
    Vedic Age Aryan society, varna system, iron technology
    Early States Mahajanapadas, economy, heterodox religions
    6th century BCE Second urbanization, rise of Jainism & Buddhism