UGC NET Unit 6: Drama and Its Theories – Indian and Western – Performing Arts

(UGC NET – Performing Arts, Theatre Section)

It’s structured, analytical, and suitable for both conceptual understanding and direct exam preparation.

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1. Concept of Drama – Indian and Western

A. The Indian Concept of Drama (Natya)

The Indian idea of drama is deeply rooted in the spiritual, philosophical, and aesthetic traditions of ancient India. The Sanskrit term Natya comes from the root NAT meaning “to act” or “to represent.” In the Indian context, Natyaencompasses theatre, dance, and music—a composite performing art that unites all forms of expression.

The foundation of Indian dramatic theory lies in Bharata Muni’s Natyasastra, composed between 200 BCE and 200 CE. This monumental treatise is considered the Fifth Veda (Panchama Veda) because it synthesizes spiritual, moral, and artistic knowledge from the four Vedas to educate and enlighten society.

According to Bharata, the creator-god Brahma devised Natya by drawing:

• Speech from the Rig Veda,

• Music from the Sama Veda,

• Gestures from the Yajur Veda, and

• Emotions from the Atharva Veda.

Brahma then taught this art to Bharata, who in turn instructed his hundred sons—symbolizing the spread of dramatic art across humanity.

Definition and Purpose

Bharata defines Natya as:

“An imitation of human behavior, representing the actions and emotions of people for the purpose of instruction and entertainment.” (Natyasastra, Ch. 1)

Unlike the Western view, Indian drama does not aim merely to entertain; it aims to educate, uplift, and purify the human mind.

The five objectives (Prayojanas) of drama are:

1. Dharma – Upholding righteousness and ethical duty

2. Artha – Material and intellectual understanding

3. Kama – Fulfillment of emotional desires

4. Moksha – Attaining liberation and spiritual insight

5. Rasa – Experiencing aesthetic bliss

Thus, drama (Natya) is a form of spiritual pedagogy, combining ritual, psychology, and aesthetics. It mirrors the world not for imitation but for transformation.

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B. The Western Concept of Drama

The Western notion of drama originated in Ancient Greece, where performances evolved from Dionysian ritualshonoring the god of wine, fertility, and ecstasy. The word Drama (Greek: Dran) literally means “to act” or “to do.”

While Indian drama is cyclical and moral, Western drama emphasizes human action, conflict, and consequence. It represents the struggle of individuals within moral, social, or cosmic frameworks.

Aristotle’s Definition

In his seminal work Poetics (4th century BCE), Aristotle defines tragedy as:

“An imitation (mimesis) of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with artistic ornament; performed rather than narrated; producing catharsis of pity and fear.”

The purpose of Western tragedy, therefore, is Catharsis — the purgation or cleansing of emotions, leading to psychological balance.

Western dramaturgy tends to be rational, individualistic, and causal, focused on the moral, psychological, and existential journey of characters.

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2. Elements and Structure of Drama

A. Indian Dramaturgy – According to Natyasastra

Bharata’s Natyasastra provides an intricate system of dramaturgy that encompasses the structural, aesthetic, and performative dimensions of theatre.

(i) Structural Divisions

A Sanskrit play is organized into five acts (Sandhis):

1. Mukha (Opening) – Introduces the theme and mood

2. Pratimukha (Progression) – The plot begins to unfold

3. Garbha (Crisis) – Conflict intensifies

4. Avamarsha (Climax) – Tension and emotional peak

5. Nirvahana (Resolution) – Conclusion with reconciliation and auspiciousness

(ii) Dramatic Types (Dasarupaka)

Bharata lists ten forms of drama, each with distinct themes and scales:

1. Nataka – Heroic drama drawn from history or legend (Shakuntalam)

2. Prakarana – Fictional or social play (Mṛcchakatika)

3. Samavakara – Mythological spectacle

4. Ihamrga – Romantic adventure

5. Dima – Divine or war-themed

6. Vyayoga – Short heroic episode

7. Bhāna – One-actor monologue

8. Prahasana – Satirical farce

9. Anka – Religious or moral story

10. Vithi – One-act sketch or minor play

(iii) The Four Abhinayas (Modes of Expression)

1. Angika – Body movements, gestures, facial expressions

2. Vachika – Voice, dialogue, recitation, song

3. Aharya – Costume, ornament, scenery, props

4. Sattvika – Inner, psychological expression of emotion

These four work together to convey Bhava (emotion) and create Rasa (aesthetic experience).

(iv) The Rasa Theory

Central to Indian dramaturgy is the Rasa-Sutra:

“Vibhava, Anubhava, and Vyabhicari Bhavas together create Rasa.”

• Vibhava – Determinants or cause of emotion

• Anubhava – Consequent physical manifestation

• Vyabhicari Bhava – Transitory emotions supporting the main feeling

The nine Rasas (Navarasa) are: Śṛṅgāra (love), Hāsya (laughter), Karuṇa (compassion), Raudra (anger), Vīra (heroism), Bhayānaka (fear), Bībhatsa (disgust), Adbhuta (wonder), and Śānta (tranquility).

Thus, Indian drama is experiential and emotive, aiming for spiritual elevation rather than moral judgment.

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B. Western Dramaturgy

Western dramaturgy evolved through classical, medieval, and modern phases. The classical theory was established by Aristotle, expanded by Horace and Seneca, and later reshaped by Renaissance and modern playwrights.

Six Elements of Tragedy (Aristotle’s Poetics)

1. Plot (Mythos) – The arrangement of incidents; the soul of tragedy

2. Character (Ethos) – Moral and psychological traits of individuals

3. Thought (Dianoia) – The underlying idea or theme

4. Diction (Lexis) – Language, style, and dialogue

5. Melody (Melos) – Musical or rhythmic quality

6. Spectacle (Opsis) – Visual presentation and stagecraft

Aristotle also emphasized the Three Unities:

• Unity of Action – One main plot, no subplots

• Unity of Time – Action within 24 hours

• Unity of Place – Single physical setting

Freytag’s Dramatic Structure (Modern Western Model)

1. Exposition – Introduction of situation and characters

2. Rising Action – Complication and conflict

3. Climax – Turning point

4. Falling Action – Unraveling of tension

5. Denouement – Resolution and conclusion

Western structure is linear, based on conflict, progression, and resolution—an artistic reflection of cause and consequence.

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3. Classifications of Western Drama

1. Tragedy – Concerned with human suffering, moral conflict, and downfall.
   Example: Oedipus Rex (Sophocles), Hamlet (Shakespeare), Death of a Salesman (Miller).

2. Comedy – Focuses on social manners, love, or human folly; ends happily.
   Example: The Clouds (Aristophanes), As You Like It (Shakespeare), Tartuffe (Molière).

3. Tragicomedy – Combines tragic intensity with comic relief and hope.
   Example: The Winter’s Tale, Waiting for Godot.

4. Melodrama – Exaggerated emotions, clear moral division, music underscoring action.
   Example: Uncle Tom’s Cabin.

5. Farce – Pure comedy, absurd situations, physical humor.
   Example: The Importance of Being Earnest.

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4. Major Dramatic ‘Isms’

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5. Major Playwrights and Their Contributions

A. Sanskrit Playwrights

• Bhasa (4th century BCE): Oldest dramatist; realistic characters and human emotions (Svapnavasavadatta, Urubhanga).

• Kalidasa (4th century CE): Poet-philosopher; refined poetic beauty and emotional balance (Abhijnanasakuntalam).

• Sudraka (3rd century CE): Realism and social mobility; humanity beyond caste (Mṛcchakatika).

• Bhavabhuti (7th century CE): Pathos and grandeur (Uttararamacharita, Malatimadhava).

• Visakhadatta: Political realism (Mudrarakshasa).

• Bhattanarayana: Heroic rasa and valor (Venisamhara).

B. Greek and Roman Playwrights

• Aeschylus: Father of Tragedy; moral and divine justice (Oresteia).

• Sophocles: Structural perfection and tragic irony (Oedipus Rex).

• Euripides: Psychological depth and humanism (Medea).

• Aristophanes: Political satire (Lysistrata).

• Seneca: Roman philosopher; revenge tragedy model (Phaedra).

C. Western Playwrights (Medieval to Modern)

• Shakespeare (1564–1616): Universal human emotions, poetic drama (Hamlet, King Lear).

• Molière (1622–1673): Social satire and manners (Tartuffe, The Misanthrope).

• Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906): Modern realism, women’s emancipation (A Doll’s House).

• Anton Chekhov (1860–1904): Subtle realism, inner conflict (The Cherry Orchard).

• Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936): Meta-theatre and illusion (Six Characters in Search of an Author).

• Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956): Epic theatre; socio-political critique (The Caucasian Chalk Circle).

• Arthur Miller (1915–2005): American tragedy of common man (Death of a Salesman).

• Samuel Beckett (1906–1989): Theatre of the Absurd (Waiting for Godot).

• Eugène Ionesco (1909–1994): Satire of communication and absurdity (The Bald Soprano).

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6. Comparative Overview: Indian and Western Dramaturgy

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7. Modern and Contemporary Relevance

Modern Indian dramatists have successfully blended Natyasastra aesthetics with Western dramatic innovations.

• Girish Karnad integrated myth with modern symbolism (Hayavadana).

• Badal Sircar used Third Theatre inspired by Brecht’s epic style.

• Habib Tanvir combined folk and modern techniques (Charandas Chor).

• Ratan Thiyam employed ritualistic and spiritual elements in modern contexts.

Contemporary global theatre emphasizes intercultural dramaturgy, where Eastern spiritualism and Western realism coexist. The synthesis of Rasa and Catharsis, Abhinaya and Alienation, reflects the universal search for human truth through performance.

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Classification of Western Dramas

1. Tragedy:

   • Represents downfall of a noble protagonist due to fate, flaw (hamartia), or moral weakness.

   • Evokes pity and fear, leading to catharsis.

   • Examples: Oedipus Rex (Sophocles), Macbeth (Shakespeare), Death of a Salesman (Arthur Miller).

2. Comedy:

   • Celebrates life’s follies with humor and reconciliation.

   • Focuses on love, mistaken identity, or social satire.

   • Examples: Lysistrata (Aristophanes), As You Like It (Shakespeare), The Misanthrope (Molière).

3. Tragicomedy:

   • Blends elements of tragedy and comedy.

   • Life-like realism with emotional complexity.

   • Examples: The Winter’s Tale (Shakespeare), Waiting for Godot (Beckett).

4. Melodrama:

   • Emotional exaggeration, clear moral distinction, music underscoring scenes.

   • Popular in 19th-century bourgeois theatre.

   • Examples: Uncle Tom’s Cabin, East Lynne.

5. Farce:

   • Physical comedy, mistaken identities, improbable situations.

   • Designed for laughter and energy rather than moral reflection.

   • Examples: The Doctor in Spite of Himself (Molière)