UGC NET Political Science – Unit 1: Political Theory

I. Meaning and Scope of Political Theory

🔹 Meaning:

Political theory is the systematic study of ideas and values related to political life — power, justice, liberty, equality, rights, and democracy.

It asks:

• What is the best form of government?

• How should power be distributed?

• What makes a society just and fair?

🔹 Nature:

Political theory is both normative (what ought to be) and empirical (what actually is).

🔹 Scope:

1. Conceptual Analysis – understanding political ideas (liberty, equality, justice, etc.)

2. Normative Theory – setting standards for political life.

3. Empirical Study – analyzing institutions and behavior scientifically.

4. Critique and Change – guiding reform and social transformation.

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🧠 II. Key Political Concepts

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1. Liberty (Freedom)

Meaning:
Liberty means the absence of restraint and the opportunity to act according to one’s own will within social limits.

Types:

• Positive Liberty: Freedom to do something (self-realization, collective good).

• Negative Liberty: Freedom from external interference (individual rights).

Thinkers:

• Isaiah Berlin: Differentiated between positive and negative liberty.

• J.S. Mill: Advocated liberty of thought, expression, and action (limited by “harm principle”).

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2. Equality

Meaning:
Equality means removal of privileges and discriminations; ensuring equal rights and opportunities.

Forms:

1. Political Equality – one person, one vote.

2. Social Equality – no caste, class, gender discrimination.

3. Economic Equality – fair distribution of wealth.

4. Legal Equality – equal protection of laws.

Key Idea:
Equality does not mean uniformity; it means fairness in opportunity.

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3. Justice

Meaning:
Justice is the moral ideal that ensures fairness in social, economic, and political relations.

Types:

1. Distributive Justice – fair distribution of resources.

2. Procedural Justice – fairness in processes and laws.

3. Social Justice – ending oppression and inequalities.

Thinker:

• John Rawls: A Theory of Justice → Justice as fairness, based on equality of opportunity and difference principle.

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4. Rights

Meaning:
Rights are claims recognized by society as essential for individual development.

Types:

• Natural Rights – inherent (life, liberty, property – Locke).

• Legal Rights – given by state laws.

• Moral Rights – based on ethics.

Key Idea:
Rights and duties are interdependent; no right without responsibility.

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5. Democracy

Meaning:
Government “of the people, by the people, for the people.” – Abraham Lincoln

Types:

• Direct Democracy: Citizens directly participate (ancient Athens).

• Representative Democracy: Elected representatives act on behalf.

Core Values:

• Political equality

• Participation

• Rule of law

• Accountability

• Tolerance

Modern View:
Democracy is not only political but also social and economic participation (Amartya Sen’s idea of development as freedom).

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6. Power

Meaning:
Power is the ability to influence others’ behavior to achieve desired outcomes.

Forms (Lukes’ three dimensions):

1. Decision-making power

2. Agenda-setting power

3. Ideological power (shaping beliefs)

Types of Power:

• Coercive (force)

• Economic

• Political

• Ideological

Thinkers: Max Weber (power and authority), Michel Foucault (power is diffused, present in all relationships).

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7. Citizenship

Meaning:
Membership in a political community with rights and duties.

Types:

• Liberal Citizenship: Focus on rights and individual freedom.

• Republican Citizenship: Emphasizes civic duty and participation.

• Global Citizenship: Beyond national boundaries — universal human rights.

Modern Issues:
Dual citizenship, migration, cultural pluralism, refugees, gender inclusivity.

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🌍 III. Major Political Traditions / Ideologies

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1. Liberalism

Core Ideas:

• Individual freedom and equality before law

• Limited government

• Private property and free market

Thinkers: John Locke, J.S. Mill, Adam Smith

Types:

• Classical Liberalism: Minimum state interference.

• Modern Liberalism: State ensures welfare and equality of opportunity.

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2. Conservatism

Core Ideas:

• Value of tradition and gradual change

• Importance of family, religion, authority

• Skeptical of radical reforms

Thinkers: Edmund Burke, Michael Oakeshott

Quote: “A state without the means of change is without the means of its conservation.” – Burke

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3. Socialism

Core Ideas:

• Cooperation over competition

• Economic equality

• Collective ownership of means of production

Types:

• Democratic Socialism

• Revolutionary Socialism

Thinkers: Karl Marx, Robert Owen, Bernstein

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4. Marxism

Core Ideas:

• Economic structure shapes politics

• Class struggle is the motor of history

• Goal: classless, stateless society

Key Concepts:
Base & superstructure, surplus value, alienation, proletarian revolution.

Thinkers: Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels (Communist Manifesto).

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5. Feminism

Core Ideas:

• Gender equality and women’s empowerment

• Critique of patriarchy

• Equal representation and opportunity

Types:

• Liberal Feminism (equal rights)

• Radical Feminism (overthrow patriarchy)

• Socialist Feminism (links gender & class)

• Ecofeminism (links oppression of women and nature)

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6. Ecologism

Core Ideas:

• Protection of environment and sustainable living

• Human life interconnected with nature

• Criticism of industrial capitalism and consumerism

Variants:
Deep ecology (radical), shallow ecology (reformist).

Thinkers: Arne Naess, Vandana Shiva.

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7. Multiculturalism

Core Ideas:

• Recognition and respect for cultural diversity

• Equality among different cultural communities

• Group rights along with individual rights

Thinkers: Charles Taylor, Will Kymlicka.

Focus: Managing diversity in democracy — language, religion, ethnicity.

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8. Postmodernism

Core Ideas:

• Rejects universal truths or grand theories

• Knowledge and truth are socially constructed

• Emphasizes difference, pluralism, and identity

Thinkers: Michel Foucault, Lyotard, Derrida

Implication: Challenges Enlightenment ideals and traditional political ideologies.

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📚 IV. Summary Table