(UGC NET Performing Arts – Dance, Drama & Theatre)
1. Introduction: Diversity and Continuity
India’s cultural map is marked by extraordinary regional diversity — hundreds of folk and traditional theatre formsthriving as expressions of communal faith, seasonal rituals, and entertainment.
These forms are oral, performative, and participatory, often blurring the boundary between ritual and drama, devotion and entertainment.
They are the people’s theatre — rooted in local languages and dialects, using music, dance, costume, and dialogue to narrate myths, historical tales, and moral lessons.
2. Conceptual Framework
| Category | Nature | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Tribal Theatre | Performed by indigenous/tribal groups; ritualistic and animistic. | Lai Haraoba (Manipur), Karma Naach(Central India) |
| Folk Theatre | Community entertainment and moral education, performed in local dialects. | Nautanki, Bhavai, Jatra |
| Traditional Theatre | Sustained by hereditary performers or temple institutions; includes classical survivals. | Yakshagana, Kutiyattam, Bhagavata Mela |
| Classical Theatre | Textually codified and Sanskritic, based on Nāṭyaśāstra. | Kutiyattam (borderline classical–traditional) |
These are not isolated; they often intermingle — folk idioms energize classical art, and classical grammar influences folk expression.
3. Historical Background
The roots of folk theatre lie in ritual performance — agricultural rites, fertility celebrations, and epic storytelling.
With the Bhakti movement (6th–12th CE), temple festivals turned into open performances.
Later, royal patronage, colonial suppression, and modern revival shaped today’s folk-theatre landscape.
4. Regional Survey of Major Folk and Traditional Theatre Forms
Below are India’s key regional forms with distinctive traits and instruments used:
A. Northern India
| Form | Region | Features | Musical Instruments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rāmlīlā | Uttar Pradesh, Bihar | Enactment of Ramayana during Dussehra; devotional, community-based, with narration and bhajans. | Dholak, Harmonium, Manjira, Jhanjh, Nagara |
| Rāslīlā | Braj region (UP, Vrindavan, Mathura) | Depicts Krishna’s life; song, dance, and dialogue; performed by boys (traditionally). | Flute, Mridang, Pakhawaj, Harmonium, Kartal |
| Nautanki | Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana | Folk musical theatre with love stories and heroic legends; exaggerated dialogue and melody. | Nagara, Dholak, Harmonium, Sarangi |
| Swang | Haryana, Western UP | Musical folk play using satire and mythic episodes; participatory and humorous. | Ektara, Dholak, Sarangi, Manjira |
| Bhand Pather | Kashmir | Satirical comedy-drama by Bhand (jester) communities; includes dance and mime. | Nagara, Dhol, Surnai, Chimta |
B. Western India
| Form | Region | Features | Musical Instruments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bhavai | Gujarat | Open-air satirical folk theatre with stock characters (e.g., Patel, Thakur); social commentary. | Nagara, Pakhawaj, Jhanjh, Shehnai |
| Tamasha | Maharashtra | Song-dance-dialogue format; Lavani songs, humor, and sensual expression. | Dholki, Sambal, Harmonium, Manjira, Sitar |
| Powada | Maharashtra | Ballad narration of heroic deeds (e.g., Shivaji’s exploits). | Dholak, Tuntuna, Lezim, Cymbals |
| Dashavatar | Konkan, Goa, Maharashtra | Religious folk play depicting ten incarnations of Vishnu; mask and costume rich. | Pakhawaj, Tabla, Harmonium, Jhanjh |
C. Eastern India
| Form | Region | Features | Instruments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jatra | West Bengal, Odisha, Bangladesh | Melodramatic theatre with mythic and social plots; loud singing, declamation, and chorus. | Khol, Dhol, Harmonium, Cymbals, Trumpet |
| Chhau | Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal | Dance-drama combining martial arts and myth; mask (Purulia), semi-mask (Seraikella), no mask (Mayurbhanj). | Dhol, Dhumaša, Shehnai, Nagara |
| Bhaona / Ankiya Naat | Assam | Devotional plays composed by Sankardeva; themes from Bhagavata Purana. | Khol (drum), Tal(cymbals), Sankari flute |
| Domni / Bidapat naach | Bihar | Folk drama of mythic episodes with musical narration. | Dholak, Harmonium, Manjira |
D. Southern India
| Form | Region | Features | Instruments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Yakshagana | Karnataka | Dance-drama combining classical music, folk vigor, extempore dialogue; performers wear huge headgear (Kirita). | Maddale, Chende, Harmonium, Taala(cymbals) |
| Bhagavata Mela | Tamil Nadu (Melattur, Thanjavur) | Temple drama depicting Bhagavata Purana; devotional, with classical music base. | Mridangam, Nadaswaram, Violin, Talam |
| Therukoothu | Tamil Nadu | “Street play” based on epics; colorful makeup, open stage, moral didacticism. | Mridangam, Mukha Veena, Cymbals, Harmonium |
| Kuravanji | Tamil Nadu | Dance-drama combining classical and folk idioms; fortune-teller (Kurathi) central. | Mridangam, Veena, Flute, Talam |
| Koodiyattam / Kutiyattam | Kerala | Sanskrit theatre tradition in temple theatre (Koothambalam); highly codified acting. | Mizhavu (drum), Edakka, Ilathalam |
| Theyyam | Kerala | Possession ritual where performer embodies deity; elaborate costume, trance-dance. | Chenda, Elathalam, Kuzhal (wind), Kombu |
| Krishnattam | Kerala | Temple dance-drama narrating Krishna Leela; precursor to Kathakali. | Chenda, Maddalam, Elathalam, Shankh |
| Burrakatha | Andhra Pradesh, Telangana | Narrative theatre performed by three artistes — main singer, clown, and chorus. | Tambura, Dakki, Harmonium, Castanets |
E. Central and North-Eastern India
| Form | Region | Features | Instruments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pandvani | Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh | Narrative ballad of Mahabharata sung with gestures by a soloist and supporting chorus. | Ektara (tamboora), Kartal, Manjira, Dholak |
| Nachā / Karma Naach | Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand | Seasonal tribal dance-theatre linked to harvest and fertility. | Mandar, Nagara, Bansuri, Kartal |
| Lai Haraoba | Manipur | Ritual theatre of the Meitei; enacts creation myths; dance, chant, and song. | Pena (string instrument), Dholak, Mridang |
| Khongjom Parba | Manipur | Epic ballad singing of Manipuri heroes. | Pung (drum), Pena, Cymbals |
| Bihu Naach | Assam | Spring festival dance with theatrical flirtation scenes. | Dhol, Pepa (buffalo-horn pipe), Gogona, Taal |
5. Dramatic Components and Aesthetic Features
| Element | Folk Expression |
|---|---|
| Theme | Religious myths (Ramayana, Mahabharata, Krishna Leela), heroic legends, love stories, social satire. |
| Dialogue | Improvised, rhythmic, and audience-interactive. |
| Language | Vernacular/dialect; rhymed prose; mnemonic meters. |
| Acting | Exaggerated expression; stylized gestures rather than realistic naturalism. |
| Music | Integral — alternates narrative song (Gayan) with speech (Vachan). |
| Dance | Rhythmic interludes mark transitions and express emotional states. |
| Costume/Makeup | Symbolic colors: red (valor), white (purity), black (demons); headgear denotes role and rank. |
| Stage | Temporary, open-air, circular; audience often surrounds the performers. |
| Audience | Active participants — interject, chant, and dance, making performance communal. |
6. Instruments and Their Significance
| Instrument | Type | Common Forms Using It | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dholak / Dhol | Percussion | Nautanki, Ramlila, Jatra, Pandvani | Base rhythm, energy for chorus |
| Maddale / Chende | Percussion (double-sided drum) | Yakshagana, Bhagavata Mela | Drives dance rhythm and combat scenes |
| Khol | Percussion (barrel drum) | Jatra, Bhaona | Accompaniment for devotional songs |
| Pena | String instrument | Lai Haraoba (Manipur) | Provides drone, sacred tone |
| Ektara / Tuntuna | Monochord | Pandvani, Powada, Bhakti singing | Solo singer’s instrument and rhythm marker |
| Chenda | Drum | Theyyam, Krishnattam, Kathakali | Powerful percussive texture |
| Harmonium | Keyboard reed | Ramlila, Nautanki, Tamasha | Provides melodic support |
| Shehnai / Nadaswaram / Kuzhal | Wind | Bhavai, Bhagavata Mela, Theyyam | Auspicious openings, melodic phrases |
| Manjira / Taal / Kartal | Cymbals | All devotional folk forms | Beat keeping, audience participation |
7. Relationship with Classical Theatre and Bhakti
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From Ritual to Aesthetics: Folk forms retain the Nāṭyaśāstra principle of rasa and bhāva in simplified idioms.
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Bhakti Influence: The 6th–12th century devotional wave transformed performance into acts of worship — Raslila, Ramlila, Bhagavata Mela, and Ankiya Nat are all products of this synthesis.
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Interaction with Classical Arts: Yakshagana and Kuravanji integrate Carnatic ragas and Bharatanatyam gestures; Kutiyattam retains Sanskrit dramatic conventions but shares ritual ancestry with Theyyam and Krishnattam.
8. Performance Structure
A typical folk theatre follows a flexible three-part pattern:
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Invocation (Nandi / Ganesh Vandana): ritual prelude with music.
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Narrative / Main Play: alternates dialogue, song, and dance.
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Conclusion / Blessing: moral epilogue and audience benediction.
Improvisation, satire, and topical reference make every performance unique. The boundaries between actor and audience blur, sustaining a participatory aesthetic.
9. Modern Transformations and Preservation
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Post-Independence revival: Sangeet Natak Akademi (1953) and state cultural academies began documentation and grants.
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Urban staging: Directors such as Habib Tanvir (Naya Theatre – Chhattisgarh Nacha), Shambhu Mitra (Jatra), and B.V. Karanth (Yakshagana adaptations) reinterpreted folk idioms for modern theatre.
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Threats: Commercialization, migration, shrinking patronage, language shifts.
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Preservation efforts: Folk festivals (Surajkund, Shilpgram), inclusion in school curricula, digital archiving, UNESCO heritage listing (e.g., Kutiyattam, Chhau, Ramlila).
10. Analytical Summary for UGC NET
| Topic | Key Facts to Remember |
|---|---|
| Folk vs Traditional | Folk = popular, oral, community; Traditional = hereditary, temple or ritual lineage. |
| Functions | Ritual, didactic, entertainment, social commentary. |
| Major Regions | North – Ramlila, Raslila; West – Tamasha, Bhavai; South – Yakshagana, Bhagavata Mela, Theyyam; East – Jatra, Chhau, Ankiya Naat; Central – Pandvani. |
| Instruments | Dholak (North), Maddale/Chende (South), Khol (East), Pena (NE), Ektara (Central). |
| Themes | Epics, Purāṇas, heroism, devotion, satire. |
| Influence of Bhakti | Turned performance into worship; used vernaculars. |
| Modern Context | Revival through institutions, academic study, theatre experiments. |
11. Conclusion
Folk and traditional theatres of India form a continuum of living heritage that unites ritual, art, and social reflection. They preserve collective memory through song, story, and rhythm, offering a people’s interpretation of the same truths expressed in classical arts.
Each region’s instruments, dialects, and gestures create distinctive idioms, yet all affirm the Nāṭyaśāstra ideal:
“Natya is the imitation of life — a mirror that educates, entertains, and uplifts.”
By mastering the interrelations, instruments, and regional varieties outlined above, you can answer both descriptive essays and MCQs on Unit 2 confidently in the UGC NET exam.