ProTeacher

Tag: NET Political Science – Unit 5: International Relations

  • UGC NET Political Science Unit-5 International Relations-MCQs

    Section 1: Approaches to International Relations (1–25)

    1. Who is regarded as the father of modern Realism in International Relations?
    A. Woodrow Wilson
    B. Hans J. Morgenthau
    C. Immanuel Kant
    D. Kenneth Waltz
    ✅ Answer: B
    Explanation: Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations (1948) systematized classical realism based on power and national interest.

    2. Idealism believes that international relations can be improved through:
    A. Power and war
    B. Cooperation, law, and morality
    C. Anarchy and self-help
    D. Nationalism
    ✅ Answer: B
    Explanation: Idealists believe peace can be achieved via international law, morality, and institutions.

    3. The statement “Anarchy is what states make of it” was given by:
    A. Kenneth Waltz
    B. Alexander Wendt
    C. Robert Keohane
    D. John Mearsheimer
    ✅ Answer: B
    Explanation: Wendt, a constructivist, argued that international anarchy is socially constructed through ideas and identities.

    4. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) is significant because it:
    A. Established the League of Nations
    B. Ended World War I
    C. Recognized the sovereignty of states
    D. Created the United Nations
    ✅ Answer: C
    Explanation: Westphalia ended the Thirty Years’ War and marked the beginning of the modern state system.

    5. Which theory emphasizes the role of international institutions and interdependence?
    A. Neorealism
    B. Marxism
    C. Neoliberalism
    D. Feminism
    ✅ Answer: C
    Explanation: Neoliberal institutionalism stresses cooperation through institutions even under anarchy.

    6. “Theory is always for someone and for some purpose” was stated by:
    A. Wallerstein
    B. Robert Cox
    C. Waltz
    D. Nye
    ✅ Answer: B
    Explanation: Cox’s Critical Theory highlights that theories reflect political purposes and power relations.

    7. The main unit of analysis for Realists is:
    A. International organizations
    B. Non-state actors
    C. The sovereign state
    D. Transnational corporations
    ✅ Answer: C

    8. The core assumption of Realism is:
    A. Human nature is cooperative
    B. Power and national interest guide state behavior
    C. Global governance reduces conflict
    D. Culture defines politics
    ✅ Answer: B

    9. Kenneth Waltz is associated with which theory?
    A. Neorealism
    B. Constructivism
    C. Liberalism
    D. Marxism
    ✅ Answer: A
    Explanation: Waltz’s Theory of International Politics (1979) developed structural realism (neorealism).

    10. The “Balance of Power” principle is central to:
    A. Realism
    B. Feminism
    C. Idealism
    D. Constructivism
    ✅ Answer: A

    11. Neorealists argue that states act in a certain way because:
    A. Human nature is evil
    B. The international system is anarchic
    C. They are culturally similar
    D. International law compels them
    ✅ Answer: B

    12. Neoliberal institutionalism argues that cooperation occurs through:
    A. Force
    B. International regimes and institutions
    C. Isolation
    D. Nationalism
    ✅ Answer: B

    13. Who introduced the concept of “Complex Interdependence”?
    A. Nye and Keohane
    B. Morgenthau and Waltz
    C. Lenin and Marx
    D. Huntington and Fukuyama
    ✅ Answer: A

    14. Which theory focuses on ideas, norms, and identity rather than material power?
    A. Realism
    B. Constructivism
    C. Neorealism
    D. Marxism
    ✅ Answer: B

    15. Immanuel Wallerstein’s theory of “World System” divides the world into:
    A. Rich and Poor
    B. Core, Semi-periphery, Periphery
    C. East and West
    D. North and South
    ✅ Answer: B

    16. Which of the following best describes Idealism?
    A. Emphasis on military power
    B. Cooperation through law and institutions
    C. Anarchy and self-help
    D. Economic exploitation
    ✅ Answer: B

    17. Marxist theory of international relations focuses on:
    A. National interest
    B. Class struggle and economic exploitation
    C. Democratic peace
    D. Human rights
    ✅ Answer: B

    18. Who is known for the theory of “Offensive Realism”?
    A. Keohane
    B. Mearsheimer
    C. Morgenthau
    D. Nye
    ✅ Answer: B

    19. Feminist IR theory criticizes:
    A. Marxism
    B. Male-centric bias of IR
    C. Liberalism
    D. Sovereignty
    ✅ Answer: B

    20. Postmodernism in IR focuses on:
    A. Objective truth
    B. Scientific analysis
    C. Language, discourse, and power
    D. Economic structure
    ✅ Answer: C

    21. The realist concept of “self-help” means:
    A. Relying on UN
    B. Relying on own power for survival
    C. Forming alliances permanently
    D. Isolationism
    ✅ Answer: B

    22. Critical Theory in IR aims to:
    A. Maintain status quo
    B. Expose domination and promote emancipation
    C. Promote realism
    D. Justify imperialism
    ✅ Answer: B

    23. “Liberal institutionalism” suggests that:
    A. Power politics dominates
    B. Institutions reduce uncertainty and foster trust
    C. States cannot cooperate
    D. War is inevitable
    ✅ Answer: B

    24. According to Realists, the international system is characterized by:
    A. Hierarchy
    B. Anarchy
    C. Equality
    D. Integration
    ✅ Answer: B

    25. Feminist scholar Cynthia Enloe focused on:
    A. Gender and global militarization
    B. Trade and globalization
    C. Balance of power
    D. Cultural imperialism
    ✅ Answer: A

    🌍 Section 2: Concepts – Power, Sovereignty, Security (26–35)

    26. Sovereignty means:
    A. Dependence on international law
    B. Supreme authority of the state
    C. Democratic government
    D. Decentralization
    ✅ Answer: B

    27. “Human Security” concept was introduced by:
    A. IMF
    B. UNDP (1994)
    C. WTO
    D. NATO
    ✅ Answer: B

    28. Hard power is based on:
    A. Culture and diplomacy
    B. Military and economic strength
    C. Human rights
    D. Ethics
    ✅ Answer: B

    29. Soft power is associated with:
    A. Hans Morgenthau
    B. Joseph Nye
    C. Robert Cox
    D. Immanuel Kant
    ✅ Answer: B

    30. Which of the following challenges traditional conceptions of security?
    A. Balance of Power
    B. Human Security
    C. Deterrence
    D. Nuclear Arms Race
    ✅ Answer: B

    31. The international system is said to be “anarchic” because:
    A. There are no laws
    B. There is no world government
    C. States are not equal
    D. Treaties are not binding
    ✅ Answer: B

    32. Non-state actors include:
    A. States only
    B. Multinational corporations, NGOs, terrorist groups
    C. Governments only
    D. Militaries
    ✅ Answer: B

    33. The modern nation-state system originated with:
    A. The Congress of Vienna
    B. Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
    C. World War I
    D. The UN Charter
    ✅ Answer: B

    34. The most important actor in international politics, according to Realists, is:
    A. UN
    B. State
    C. NGO
    D. Individual
    ✅ Answer: B

    35. “Smart Power” refers to:
    A. Technology in warfare
    B. Combination of hard and soft power
    C. Use of cyber tools
    D. Smart diplomacy only
    ✅ Answer: B

    ⚔️ Section 3: Conflict, Peace & Security (36–45)

    36. The concept of “Deterrence” gained prominence during:
    A. Cold War
    B. World War I
    C. World War II
    D. Gulf War
    ✅ Answer: A

    37. MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) refers to:
    A. Economic competition
    B. Nuclear deterrence between superpowers
    C. Arms control
    D. Trade sanctions
    ✅ Answer: B

    38. Which of the following is a non-traditional security threat?
    A. Territorial invasion
    B. Climate change
    C. Nuclear war
    D. Arms race
    ✅ Answer: B

    39. “Conflict Transformation” aims to:
    A. Win wars
    B. Change root causes of conflict
    C. Create balance of power
    D. Maintain arms race
    ✅ Answer: B
    Explanation: Johan Galtung’s idea – transform structures that generate conflict.

    40. The NPT (1968) seeks to:
    A. Promote nuclear energy
    B. Prevent spread of nuclear weapons
    C. Increase nuclear arms
    D. End alliances
    ✅ Answer: B

    41. CTBT stands for:
    A. Comprehensive Trade Ban Treaty
    B. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
    C. Chemical Terrorism Ban Treaty
    D. Convention on Trade and Borders Treaty
    ✅ Answer: B

    42. Peacekeeping forces operate under:
    A. WTO
    B. IMF
    C. UN
    D. NATO only
    ✅ Answer: C

    43. The UN Secretary-General acts as:
    A. Military leader
    B. Diplomatic and administrative head
    C. Commander-in-chief
    D. Judge of ICJ
    ✅ Answer: B

    44. The concept of “Collective Security” is based on:
    A. Deterrence
    B. Power balancing
    C. Cooperation for mutual protection
    D. Economic dependence
    ✅ Answer: C

    45. Humanitarian intervention means:
    A. Helping people through military or non-military means to prevent atrocities
    B. Trade liberalization
    C. Religious mission
    D. Colonization
    ✅ Answer: A

    🕊️ Section 4: United Nations, International Law, and ICC (46–55)

    46. The United Nations was established in:
    A. 1919
    B. 1945
    C. 1950
    D. 1960
    ✅ Answer: B

    47. The primary responsibility of maintaining peace and security lies with:
    A. General Assembly
    B. Security Council
    C. ECOSOC
    D. Trusteeship Council
    ✅ Answer: B

    48. Permanent members of UN Security Council (P5) include:
    A. US, UK, Russia, France, China
    B. US, India, Germany, Japan, China
    C. US, France, Italy, China, Canada
    D. UK, India, Brazil, Russia, US
    ✅ Answer: A

    49. The ICJ is located in:
    A. Geneva
    B. The Hague
    C. New York
    D. London
    ✅ Answer: B

    50. The International Criminal Court (ICC) was established by:
    A. Rome Statute, 2002
    B. Geneva Convention, 1949
    C. Vienna Treaty, 1969
    D. Paris Agreement, 2015
    ✅ Answer: A

    51. The principal judicial organ of the UN is:
    A. ICC
    B. ICJ
    C. Security Council
    D. ECOSOC
    ✅ Answer: B

    52. ECOSOC deals with:
    A. Security
    B. Economic and social development
    C. Judicial issues
    D. Peacekeeping
    ✅ Answer: B

    53. The UNDP works for:
    A. Peacekeeping
    B. Economic and human development
    C. Refugee protection
    D. Trade liberalization
    ✅ Answer: B

    54. The “Veto power” is exercised by:
    A. All UN members
    B. P5 members of the Security Council
    C. General Assembly
    D. ICJ
    ✅ Answer: B

    55. Human rights are protected globally by:
    A. UDHR (1948)
    B. NATO
    C. GATT
    D. WTO
    ✅ Answer: A

    💰 Section 5: Global Political Economy & Regionalism (56–65)

    56. The IMF and World Bank were established under:
    A. Washington Treaty
    B. Bretton Woods Agreement (1944)
    C. Paris Accord
    D. Kyoto Protocol
    ✅ Answer: B

    57. The WTO replaced:
    A. IMF
    B. GATT
    C. League of Nations
    D. UNCTAD
    ✅ Answer: B

    58. The NIEO (New International Economic Order) was demanded by:
    A. Developed nations
    B. Developing nations (Global South)
    C. Western Europe
    D. BRICS only
    ✅ Answer: B

    59. G-20 is primarily concerned with:
    A. Global security
    B. Global economic cooperation
    C. Climate change only
    D. Military alliances
    ✅ Answer: B

    60. BRICS includes:
    A. Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa
    B. Belgium, Romania, Iran, Chile, Spain
    C. Bangladesh, Rwanda, Indonesia, Cuba, Sudan
    D. Britain, Russia, Italy, Canada, Spain
    ✅ Answer: A

    61. The European Union’s common currency is called:
    A. Franc
    B. Euro
    C. Pound
    D. Mark
    ✅ Answer: B

    62. ASEAN was formed to promote:
    A. Regional integration in Southeast Asia
    B. Military alliance
    C. Trade with Africa
    D. Western domination
    ✅ Answer: A

    63. The African Union (AU) succeeded:
    A. League of Nations
    B. OAU (Organization of African Unity)
    C. ECOWAS
    D. COMESA
    ✅ Answer: B

    64. The SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) focuses on:
    A. Security and regional stability
    B. Trade disputes
    C. Religious dialogue
    D. Human rights
    ✅ Answer: A

    65. Globalization increases:
    A. Isolation
    B. Interdependence
    C. Sovereignty
    D. Autarky
    ✅ Answer: B

    🌏 Section 6: Contemporary Global Challenges (66–70)

    66. The Kyoto Protocol deals with:
    A. Nuclear disarmament
    B. Climate change
    C. Refugee protection
    D. Trade disputes
    ✅ Answer: B

    67. The Paris Agreement (2015) focuses on:
    A. Terrorism
    B. Global temperature control and climate cooperation
    C. Nuclear arms reduction
    D. Refugee migration
    ✅ Answer: B

    68. The UNHCR works for:
    A. Child welfare
    B. Refugee protection
    C. Women’s rights
    D. Trade promotion
    ✅ Answer: B

    69. The concept of “Clash of Civilizations” was given by:
    A. Huntington
    B. Fukuyama
    C. Marx
    D. Wallerstein
    ✅ Answer: A

    70. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development contains:
    A. 5 goals
    B. 17 goals
    C. 12 goals
    D. 25 goals
    ✅ Answer: B
    Explanation: UN adopted 17 SDGs in 2015 to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure peace.

    ✅ Summary of Coverage

  • UGC NET Political Science Unit-5 International Relations

    I. Understanding International Relations (IR)

    Definition:
    International Relations (IR) is the study of how states, international organizations, and non-state actors interact in the global arena — through power, cooperation, conflict, diplomacy, and law.

    Goal:
    To explain and understand how the world works — why countries go to war or cooperate, how peace is maintained, and how globalization affects politics.

    🌐 II. Approaches to the Study of IR

    There is no single way to study IR. Each approach explains world politics differently — based on its assumptions about human nature, power, and cooperation.

    1️⃣ Idealism / Liberal Internationalism

    Core Belief:

    • Human beings are rational and moral, and peace is possible through reason and cooperation.

    • International relations can be improved by institutions, law, and morality.

    Historical Background:

    • Emerged after World War I (1919) — to prevent future wars.

    • Promoted by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson (Fourteen Points).

    • Inspired by Immanuel Kant’s “Perpetual Peace” (1795).

    Main Ideas:

    • War is not inevitable; conflicts can be resolved peacefully.

    • Collective Security: if one country threatens peace, all others should act together (e.g., League of Nations).

    • International Law and organizations like the UN help maintain peace.

    • Belief in progress, democracy, and human rights.

    Criticism:

    • Overly optimistic.

    • Failed to prevent World War II.

    2️⃣ Realism

    Core Belief:

    • Human nature is selfish and power-seeking.

    • The international system is anarchic (no world government).

    • Every state must ensure its own survival through power (especially military).

    Key Thinkers:

    • Thucydides: “The strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what they must.”

    • Niccolò Machiavelli: “It is better to be feared than loved.”

    • Thomas Hobbes: Life in the state of nature is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

    • Hans Morgenthau: Father of modern realism — Politics Among Nations (1948).

    Main Assumptions:

    1. The state is the main actor.

    2. Power = survival.

    3. Morality has little place in foreign policy.

    4. War is a natural part of international politics.

    5. Alliances are temporary and interest-based.

    Example:
    Cold War (U.S. vs USSR) — both sought to maintain balance of power.

    3️⃣ Neorealism (Structural Realism)

    Developed by: Kenneth Waltz in Theory of International Politics (1979).

    • Shifts focus from human nature to international system.

    Core Idea:

    • The anarchic structure of the international system forces states to act for self-help.

    • States behave similarly because they exist under the same structure of anarchy.

    Types of Neorealism:

    • Defensive Realism (Waltz): States seek security, not unlimited power.

    • Offensive Realism (Mearsheimer): States seek maximum power to ensure survival.

    4️⃣ Neoliberalism (Liberal Institutionalism)

    Response to Neorealism.

    Core Idea:

    • Even in an anarchic world, cooperation is possible through institutions and interdependence.

    • Key Thinkers: Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye (Power and Interdependence, 1977).

    • States cooperate because of:

      • Shared interests (e.g., trade)

      • International regimes (e.g., WTO)

      • Economic interdependence (e.g., global markets)

    Concept:

    • Complex Interdependence – states are connected by trade, finance, and communication, reducing the chance of war.

    Example:
    European Union – economic cooperation promotes peace.

    5️⃣ Structural Marxism

    Core Idea:

    • International politics is shaped by global capitalism and class relations.

    • Developed from Marx and Lenin’s theories of imperialism.

    Assumptions:

    • The global economy is divided into:

      • Core countries (rich, industrialized)

      • Periphery (poor, dependent)

    • Core exploits periphery through trade, finance, and investment.

    • World Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein): Global inequality is structural and systemic.

    Goal:
    End exploitation through revolutionary or structural change.

    6️⃣ Social Constructivism

    Core Idea:

    • The world is not fixed — it’s socially constructed through ideas, norms, and identities.

    • Reality depends on how actors perceive each other.

    • Key Thinker: Alexander Wendt – “Anarchy is what states make of it.”

    Example:
    The U.S. and UK see each other as allies (trust-based), not enemies — though both have military power.

    Focus:

    • Identity, culture, and shared meanings shape international behavior.

    • Norms (e.g., human rights) matter as much as material power.

    7️⃣ Critical International Theory

    Inspired by: Frankfurt School and Marxism.
    Main Thinker: Robert Cox.
    Core Idea:

    • IR theories are never neutral — they serve specific interests.

    • “Theory is always for someone and for some purpose.”

    • Seeks emancipation, equality, and justice at the global level.

    8️⃣ Feminist Approach to IR

    Core Idea:

    • IR has been written from a male (androcentric) perspective.

    • War, power, and security are studied through masculine lenses.

    • Feminist IR focuses on:

      • How war affects women and children.

      • Gendered division of labor in global economy.

      • Representation of women in diplomacy and peacekeeping.

    Key Thinkers: Cynthia Enloe (Bananas, Beaches and Bases), J. Ann Tickner.

    9️⃣ Postmodernism

    Core Idea:

    • Rejects universal truths and objective knowledge.

    • International relations are shaped by language, discourse, and power.

    • Focus on how dominant narratives (like “civilized vs uncivilized”) justify inequality.

    Thinkers: Michel Foucault, Richard Ashley, Derrida.

    ⚙️ III. Key Concepts in International Relations

    1️⃣ State and the State System

    • State: Sovereign political entity with population, territory, government, and recognition.

    • State System: Interaction between sovereign states; established by Treaty of Westphalia (1648).

    • Principle of sovereignty and non-interference was formalized.

    2️⃣ Non-State Actors

    • Actors other than states who influence world politics:

      • International Organizations: UN, WTO

      • Multinational Corporations: Google, Shell

      • NGOs: Amnesty International, Greenpeace

      • Terrorist Groups: ISIS, Al-Qaeda

      • Individuals: Global leaders, activists (e.g., Malala Yousafzai)

    3️⃣ Power

    • Ability to influence or control others’ actions.

    • Hard Power: Military strength, economic force.

    • Soft Power (Joseph Nye): Cultural influence, diplomacy, values.

    • Smart Power: Combination of both.

    4️⃣ Sovereignty

    • Supreme authority of a state over its territory.

    • Internal sovereignty: Authority over citizens.

    • External sovereignty: Independence from foreign control.

    • In globalization, sovereignty is often limited (e.g., UN sanctions, WTO rules).

    5️⃣ Security

    Traditional Security:

    • Military defense of state from external aggression.

    Non-Traditional Security:

    • Human security, environment, health, cyber threats, terrorism, migration.

    Human Security (UNDP, 1994):

    • “Freedom from fear and freedom from want.”

    ⚔️ IV. Conflict and Peace

    1️⃣ Changing Nature of Warfare

    • Wars are now less about states and more about ethnic, religious, or proxy conflicts.

    • Example: Syria, Ukraine.

    • Rise of cyber warfare and terrorism.

    2️⃣ Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs)

    • Nuclear, Biological, Chemical weapons.

    • Controlled by treaties:

      • NPT (1968): Prevents nuclear proliferation.

      • CTBT: Bans testing.

      • Chemical Weapons Convention.

    3️⃣ Deterrence

    • Preventing war through fear of retaliation.

    • Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) – during Cold War (US vs USSR).

    4️⃣ Conflict Resolution

    • Ending conflict through negotiation, mediation, diplomacy.

    5️⃣ Conflict Transformation

    • Goes deeper — changes underlying causes (e.g., inequality, oppression).

    • Thinker: Johan Galtung.

    🕊️ V. The United Nations (UN)

    1️⃣ Aims & Objectives

    • Maintain peace and security

    • Promote human rights and development

    • Foster international cooperation

    2️⃣ Structure

    Organ Function
    General Assembly Deliberative body of all members
    Security Council Responsible for peace and security (P5: US, UK, France, Russia, China)
    ECOSOC Economic and social development
    ICJ Judicial organ (settles disputes between states)
    Secretariat Administrative body
    Trusteeship Council Now inactive

    3️⃣ Peacekeeping and Development

    • UN Peacekeeping Forces maintain ceasefires and protect civilians.

    • UNDP promotes sustainable development.

    • UNICEF, WHO, UNESCO handle human welfare and education.

    4️⃣ Humanitarian Intervention

    • Use of military force to stop human rights abuses (e.g., Rwanda 1994, Libya 2011).

    • Controversial as it challenges state sovereignty.

    5️⃣ International Law

    • Legal framework governing relations between states.

    • Sources: Treaties, Customs, General Principles.

    • ICJ (International Court of Justice) settles legal disputes.

    6️⃣ International Criminal Court (ICC)

    • Established in 2002 by Rome Statute.

    • Tries individuals (not states) for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

    💰 VI. Political Economy of International Relations

    1️⃣ Bretton Woods System (1944)

    • Post–WWII economic order.

    • Created:

      • IMF (stability and short-term loans)

      • World Bank (development loans)

      • GATT/WTO (free trade system)

    2️⃣ Globalization

    • Increasing economic, cultural, and political interconnectedness.

    • Leads to interdependence but also inequality.

    • Challenges sovereignty and national policies.

    3️⃣ Global Governance

    • Collective management of global issues (climate change, trade) through international organizations.

    4️⃣ North–South Dialogue

    • Dialogue between developed (Global North) and developing (Global South) countries.

    • Demand for New International Economic Order (NIEO, 1974) for fairness in trade.

    5️⃣ WTO (World Trade Organization)

    • Promotes free and fair trade.

    • Handles trade disputes.

    • Critics argue it favors developed countries.

    6️⃣ G-20 and BRICS

    • G-20: Global forum of major economies for policy coordination.

    • BRICS: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa — promote South–South cooperation and multipolarity.

    🌏 VII. Regional Organizations

    Organization Members Objectives
    European Union (EU) 27 European states Economic & political integration, common currency (Euro)
    African Union (AU) 55 African states Promote unity, democracy, and development
    ASEAN 10 Southeast Asian nations Regional stability and economic cooperation
    Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) China, India, Russia, Central Asian states Security, anti-terrorism, regional development

    🌍 VIII. Contemporary Global Challenges

    1️⃣ International Terrorism

    • Non-state violence targeting civilians for political goals.

    • Examples: Al-Qaeda, ISIS.

    • Global response: UN Counterterrorism Office, FATF measures.

    2️⃣ Climate Change and Environment

    • Global warming, deforestation, pollution.

    • Global agreements:

      • Kyoto Protocol (1997)

      • Paris Agreement (2015)

    3️⃣ Human Rights

    • Based on Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).

    • Two main covenants:

      • ICCPR (Civil and Political Rights)

      • ICESCR (Economic, Social, Cultural Rights)

    4️⃣ Migration and Refugees

    • Driven by war, poverty, and persecution.

    • UNHCR protects refugees globally.

    • Refugee crises in Syria, Rohingya, Ukraine are current examples.

    5️⃣ Poverty and Development

    • Global inequality remains a core issue.

    • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, 2015): 17 goals for inclusive growth, peace, and environmental sustainability by 2030.

    6️⃣ Role of Religion, Culture, and Identity Politics

    • Rise of identity-based conflicts — ethnic, religious, nationalist.

    • Example: Middle East conflicts, rise of Hindutva, global populism.

    • Samuel Huntington’s “Clash of Civilizations” (1996): predicted future conflicts based on cultural and religious lines.

    🧩 Summary at a Glance

    Theme Key Thinkers / Ideas Keywords
    Idealism Wilson, Kant Peace via law & institutions
    Realism Morgenthau, Hobbes Power, survival, anarchy
    Neorealism Waltz Structure of system
    Neoliberalism Keohane, Nye Cooperation, interdependence
    Marxism Lenin, Wallerstein Economic exploitation
    Constructivism Wendt Ideas and identity matter
    Feminism Enloe, Tickner Gender and security
    Critical Theory Cox Emancipation
    Postmodernism Foucault, Ashley Discourse and power
    Key Institutions UN, WTO, IMF, ICC Global governance
    Key Challenges Terrorism, Climate, Refugees Global cooperation