I. Understanding International Relations (IR)

Definition:
International Relations (IR) is the study of how states, international organizations, and non-state actors interact in the global arena — through power, cooperation, conflict, diplomacy, and law.

Goal:
To explain and understand how the world works — why countries go to war or cooperate, how peace is maintained, and how globalization affects politics.

---

🌐 II. Approaches to the Study of IR

There is no single way to study IR. Each approach explains world politics differently — based on its assumptions about human nature, power, and cooperation.

---

1️⃣ Idealism / Liberal Internationalism

Core Belief:

• Human beings are rational and moral, and peace is possible through reason and cooperation.

• International relations can be improved by institutions, law, and morality.

Historical Background:

• Emerged after World War I (1919) — to prevent future wars.

• Promoted by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson (Fourteen Points).

• Inspired by Immanuel Kant’s “Perpetual Peace” (1795).

Main Ideas:

• War is not inevitable; conflicts can be resolved peacefully.

• Collective Security: if one country threatens peace, all others should act together (e.g., League of Nations).

• International Law and organizations like the UN help maintain peace.

• Belief in progress, democracy, and human rights.

Criticism:

• Overly optimistic.

• Failed to prevent World War II.

---

2️⃣ Realism

Core Belief:

• Human nature is selfish and power-seeking.

• The international system is anarchic (no world government).

• Every state must ensure its own survival through power (especially military).

Key Thinkers:

• Thucydides: “The strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what they must.”

• Niccolò Machiavelli: “It is better to be feared than loved.”

• Thomas Hobbes: Life in the state of nature is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

• Hans Morgenthau: Father of modern realism — Politics Among Nations (1948).

Main Assumptions:

1. The state is the main actor.

2. Power = survival.

3. Morality has little place in foreign policy.

4. War is a natural part of international politics.

5. Alliances are temporary and interest-based.

Example:
Cold War (U.S. vs USSR) — both sought to maintain balance of power.

---

3️⃣ Neorealism (Structural Realism)

Developed by: Kenneth Waltz in Theory of International Politics (1979).

• Shifts focus from human nature to international system.

Core Idea:

• The anarchic structure of the international system forces states to act for self-help.

• States behave similarly because they exist under the same structure of anarchy.

Types of Neorealism:

• Defensive Realism (Waltz): States seek security, not unlimited power.

• Offensive Realism (Mearsheimer): States seek maximum power to ensure survival.

---

4️⃣ Neoliberalism (Liberal Institutionalism)

Response to Neorealism.

Core Idea:

• Even in an anarchic world, cooperation is possible through institutions and interdependence.

• Key Thinkers: Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye (Power and Interdependence, 1977).

• States cooperate because of:

  • Shared interests (e.g., trade)

  • International regimes (e.g., WTO)

  • Economic interdependence (e.g., global markets)

Concept:

• Complex Interdependence – states are connected by trade, finance, and communication, reducing the chance of war.

Example:
European Union – economic cooperation promotes peace.

---

5️⃣ Structural Marxism

Core Idea:

• International politics is shaped by global capitalism and class relations.

• Developed from Marx and Lenin’s theories of imperialism.

Assumptions:

• The global economy is divided into:

  • Core countries (rich, industrialized)

  • Periphery (poor, dependent)

• Core exploits periphery through trade, finance, and investment.

• World Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein): Global inequality is structural and systemic.

Goal:
End exploitation through revolutionary or structural change.

---

6️⃣ Social Constructivism

Core Idea:

• The world is not fixed — it’s socially constructed through ideas, norms, and identities.

• Reality depends on how actors perceive each other.

• Key Thinker: Alexander Wendt – “Anarchy is what states make of it.”

Example:
The U.S. and UK see each other as allies (trust-based), not enemies — though both have military power.

Focus:

• Identity, culture, and shared meanings shape international behavior.

• Norms (e.g., human rights) matter as much as material power.

---

7️⃣ Critical International Theory

Inspired by: Frankfurt School and Marxism.
Main Thinker: Robert Cox.
Core Idea:

• IR theories are never neutral — they serve specific interests.

• “Theory is always for someone and for some purpose.”

• Seeks emancipation, equality, and justice at the global level.

---

8️⃣ Feminist Approach to IR

Core Idea:

• IR has been written from a male (androcentric) perspective.

• War, power, and security are studied through masculine lenses.

• Feminist IR focuses on:

  • How war affects women and children.

  • Gendered division of labor in global economy.

  • Representation of women in diplomacy and peacekeeping.

Key Thinkers: Cynthia Enloe (Bananas, Beaches and Bases), J. Ann Tickner.

---

9️⃣ Postmodernism

Core Idea:

• Rejects universal truths and objective knowledge.

• International relations are shaped by language, discourse, and power.

• Focus on how dominant narratives (like “civilized vs uncivilized”) justify inequality.

Thinkers: Michel Foucault, Richard Ashley, Derrida.

---

⚙️ III. Key Concepts in International Relations

---

1️⃣ State and the State System

• State: Sovereign political entity with population, territory, government, and recognition.

• State System: Interaction between sovereign states; established by Treaty of Westphalia (1648).

• Principle of sovereignty and non-interference was formalized.

---

2️⃣ Non-State Actors

• Actors other than states who influence world politics:

  • International Organizations: UN, WTO

  • Multinational Corporations: Google, Shell

  • NGOs: Amnesty International, Greenpeace

  • Terrorist Groups: ISIS, Al-Qaeda

  • Individuals: Global leaders, activists (e.g., Malala Yousafzai)

---

3️⃣ Power

• Ability to influence or control others’ actions.

• Hard Power: Military strength, economic force.

• Soft Power (Joseph Nye): Cultural influence, diplomacy, values.

• Smart Power: Combination of both.

---

4️⃣ Sovereignty

• Supreme authority of a state over its territory.

• Internal sovereignty: Authority over citizens.

• External sovereignty: Independence from foreign control.

• In globalization, sovereignty is often limited (e.g., UN sanctions, WTO rules).

---

5️⃣ Security

Traditional Security:

• Military defense of state from external aggression.

Non-Traditional Security:

• Human security, environment, health, cyber threats, terrorism, migration.

Human Security (UNDP, 1994):

• “Freedom from fear and freedom from want.”

---

⚔️ IV. Conflict and Peace

---

1️⃣ Changing Nature of Warfare

• Wars are now less about states and more about ethnic, religious, or proxy conflicts.

• Example: Syria, Ukraine.

• Rise of cyber warfare and terrorism.

---

2️⃣ Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs)

• Nuclear, Biological, Chemical weapons.

• Controlled by treaties:

  • NPT (1968): Prevents nuclear proliferation.

  • CTBT: Bans testing.

  • Chemical Weapons Convention.

---

3️⃣ Deterrence

• Preventing war through fear of retaliation.

• Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) – during Cold War (US vs USSR).

---

4️⃣ Conflict Resolution

• Ending conflict through negotiation, mediation, diplomacy.

5️⃣ Conflict Transformation

• Goes deeper — changes underlying causes (e.g., inequality, oppression).

• Thinker: Johan Galtung.

---

🕊️ V. The United Nations (UN)

---

1️⃣ Aims & Objectives

• Maintain peace and security

• Promote human rights and development

• Foster international cooperation

---

2️⃣ Structure

---

3️⃣ Peacekeeping and Development

• UN Peacekeeping Forces maintain ceasefires and protect civilians.

• UNDP promotes sustainable development.

• UNICEF, WHO, UNESCO handle human welfare and education.

---

4️⃣ Humanitarian Intervention

• Use of military force to stop human rights abuses (e.g., Rwanda 1994, Libya 2011).

• Controversial as it challenges state sovereignty.

---

5️⃣ International Law

• Legal framework governing relations between states.

• Sources: Treaties, Customs, General Principles.

• ICJ (International Court of Justice) settles legal disputes.

---

6️⃣ International Criminal Court (ICC)

• Established in 2002 by Rome Statute.

• Tries individuals (not states) for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

---

💰 VI. Political Economy of International Relations

---

1️⃣ Bretton Woods System (1944)

• Post–WWII economic order.

• Created:

  • IMF (stability and short-term loans)

  • World Bank (development loans)

  • GATT/WTO (free trade system)

---

2️⃣ Globalization

• Increasing economic, cultural, and political interconnectedness.

• Leads to interdependence but also inequality.

• Challenges sovereignty and national policies.

---

3️⃣ Global Governance

• Collective management of global issues (climate change, trade) through international organizations.

---

4️⃣ North–South Dialogue

• Dialogue between developed (Global North) and developing (Global South) countries.

• Demand for New International Economic Order (NIEO, 1974) for fairness in trade.

---

5️⃣ WTO (World Trade Organization)

• Promotes free and fair trade.

• Handles trade disputes.

• Critics argue it favors developed countries.

---

6️⃣ G-20 and BRICS

• G-20: Global forum of major economies for policy coordination.

• BRICS: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa — promote South–South cooperation and multipolarity.

---

🌏 VII. Regional Organizations

---

🌍 VIII. Contemporary Global Challenges

---

1️⃣ International Terrorism

• Non-state violence targeting civilians for political goals.

• Examples: Al-Qaeda, ISIS.

• Global response: UN Counterterrorism Office, FATF measures.

---

2️⃣ Climate Change and Environment

• Global warming, deforestation, pollution.

• Global agreements:

  • Kyoto Protocol (1997)

  • Paris Agreement (2015)

---

3️⃣ Human Rights

• Based on Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).

• Two main covenants:

  • ICCPR (Civil and Political Rights)

  • ICESCR (Economic, Social, Cultural Rights)

---

4️⃣ Migration and Refugees

• Driven by war, poverty, and persecution.

• UNHCR protects refugees globally.

• Refugee crises in Syria, Rohingya, Ukraine are current examples.

---

5️⃣ Poverty and Development

• Global inequality remains a core issue.

• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, 2015): 17 goals for inclusive growth, peace, and environmental sustainability by 2030.

---

6️⃣ Role of Religion, Culture, and Identity Politics

• Rise of identity-based conflicts — ethnic, religious, nationalist.

• Example: Middle East conflicts, rise of Hindutva, global populism.

• Samuel Huntington’s “Clash of Civilizations” (1996): predicted future conflicts based on cultural and religious lines.

---

🧩 Summary at a Glance