Comprehensive Study Notes for UGC NET / SET / UPSC

I. Rise of Magadha and the First Empire

1. Background

After the 6th century BCE, India witnessed:

• Second urbanization (due to iron technology & agriculture).

• Rise of Mahajanapadas – 16 major states.

• Among them, Magadha rose to dominance due to its strategic and economic advantages.

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2. Causes for Rise of Magadha

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3. Important Dynasties Before Mauryas

(a) Haryanka Dynasty (Bimbisara & Ajatasatru)

• Bimbisara (544–492 BCE):

  • Expanded Magadha through conquest and diplomacy.

  • Married Kosalan princess; annexed Anga.

• Ajatasatru (492–460 BCE):

  • Built fort at Rajagriha.

  • Fought Vaishali (Lichchhavis) – introduced rathamusala (chariot with blades).

(b) Shishunagas

• Shifted capital to Vaishali; ended Avanti’s dominance.

(c) Nandas

• Mahapadma Nanda extended empire up to Punjab and Deccan.

• Maintained huge army: 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, 6,000 elephants.

• Overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya (with Chanakya’s help).

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🟢 II. Greek Invasion and its Impact (327–325 BCE)

• Alexander’s invasion (327 BCE): entered north-west India via Khyber Pass.

• Defeated Porus at the Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum).

• Could not advance beyond Beas due to troop mutiny.

• Established Greek settlements in north-west.

Impact:

1. Opened Indo-Greek contact → trade and cultural exchange.

2. Stimulated political unification – prepared ground for Mauryan Empire.

3. Greek historians (Arrian, Megasthenes) provide important historical accounts.

4. Greek influence on art and coinage (later Gandhara art).

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🟢 III. The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE)

1. Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BCE)

• Founded the first pan-Indian Empire.

• Defeated Nandas with help of Chanakya (Kautilya).

• Defeated Seleucus Nikator (305 BCE) → Treaty of Chandragupta.

• Capital: Pataliputra.

• Appointed Greek ambassador Megasthenes (wrote Indica).

Administration (as per Arthashastra & Indica):

• Highly centralized monarchy.

• Hierarchical bureaucracy: Amatyas (officials), Samaharta (finance), Sannidhata (treasury).

• Standing army with espionage network.

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2. Bindusara (297–273 BCE)

• Expanded empire southward (till Mysore).

• Maintained friendly ties with Syrian king Antiochus I.

• Greek writers call him “Amitrochates” (Destroyer of foes).

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3. Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE)

(a) Conquests and Dhamma

• Won Kalinga War (261 BCE) – massive casualties → adopted Ahimsa and Dhamma (moral law).

• Dhamma = ethical code promoting tolerance, compassion, truthfulness, non-violence.

• Sent missionaries (including his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta) to Sri Lanka and other countries.

(b) Administration

• Divided empire into provinces (Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri).

• Appointed Dhamma-Mahamatras to spread ethical conduct.

(c) Ashokan Edicts

• Language: Prakrit (Brahmi script); in NW India – Greek and Aramaic.

• Major Rock Edicts (14) and Minor Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts.

• Edict XIII describes remorse after Kalinga War.

• Minor Rock Edict I mentions his personal conversion.

(d) Art & Architecture

• Polished stone pillars (Sarnath Lion Capital → National Emblem).

• Stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut.

• Use of rock-cut caves (Barabar Hills).

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4. Decline of Mauryan Empire

Causes:

1. Weak successors after Ashoka (Dasaratha, Samprati).

2. Over-centralization of power.

3. Financial crisis due to vast empire.

4. Regional revolts (Kalinga, north-west).

5. Pushyamitra Shunga’s rebellion (185 BCE).

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🟢 IV. Post-Mauryan Period and Regional Powers (200 BCE – 300 CE)

1. Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks)

• Ruled NW India after Mauryas.

• Menander (Milinda) – converted to Buddhism; dialogue in Milindapanho.

• Introduced portrait coins and Hellenistic art style.

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2. Shungas (185–73 BCE)

• Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga (a Brahmana general).

• Revival of Brahmanism and Vedic rituals (Ashvamedha).

• Patronized art: Bharhut Stupa and additions to Sanchi.

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3. Satavahanas (1st c. BCE – 2nd c. CE)

• Founded by Simuka in Deccan; capital at Pratishthana (Paithan).

• Most famous ruler: Gautamiputra Satakarni.

• Maintained trade with Romans (evident from Roman coins).

• Practised matrilineal elements (mother’s name in inscriptions).

• Language: Prakrit; script: Brahmi.

• Contributed to Amaravati art school.

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4. Kushanas (1st–3rd c. CE)

• Founded by Kujula Kadphises; most famous: Kanishka.

• Empire: from Central Asia to Pataliputra.

• Kanishka’s achievements:

  • Patron of Mahayana Buddhism.

  • Held the Fourth Buddhist Council at Kashmir.

  • Era started in 78 CE (Saka Era).

• Art & Culture:

  • Gandhara School – Greco-Buddhist style.

  • Use of standing Buddha image.

  • Issued gold coins with Greek, Iranian, and Indian deities.

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5. Sakas / Western Kshatrapas (1st c. BCE – 4th c. CE)

• Ruled western India (Gujarat & Malwa).

• Important rulers: Nahapana, Rudradaman I.

• Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman – earliest Sanskrit inscription; records repairs of Sudarshana Lake.

• Promoted trade and port cities like Bharuch (Barygaza).

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6. Kharavela of Kalinga (1st c. BCE)

• Known from Hathigumpha inscription (Udayagiri hills).

• Patron of Jainism.

• Repaired canals and promoted art and music.

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7. Sangam Age (300 BCE – 300 CE)

• Tamilakam (South India) ruled by Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.

• Sangam literature (Tolkappiyam, Ettuthokai, Pattuppattu) provides data on politics, economy, and society.

  • Cheras: traded with Rome via Muziris (Kerala).

  • Cholas: capital Uraiyur, maritime trade.

  • Pandyas: capital Madurai.

Society: Patriarchal; warriors, agriculturists, and bards.
Religion: Worship of Murugan, Korravai, and hero stones (Nadukal).

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8. Trade & Commerce (2nd BCE–3rd CE)

• Inland and maritime trade flourished.

• Ports: Bharuch, Sopara, Arikamedu, Tamralipti, Muziris.

• Roman trade: Gold coins of Augustus, Nero, Trajan found in India.

• Goods exported: Spices, pearls, textiles, ivory.

• Goods imported: Wine, coral, gold, glassware.

• Text: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea details Indo-Roman commerce.

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9. Religious Developments

• Mahayana Buddhism arose under Kanishka: worship of Buddha as god.

• Emergence of image worship, Bodhisattva ideals.

• Bhakti elements began in Hinduism.

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10. Post-Mauryan Art & Architecture

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🟢 V. Gupta–Vakataka Age (4th–6th Century CE)

1. Political History

• Chandragupta I (320–335 CE) – founder; married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.

• Samudragupta (335–375 CE) – “Napoleon of India” (as per Allahabad Pillar Inscription).

• Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya, 375–415 CE) – expanded to western India; patron of Kalidasa.

• Decline under later Guptas due to Huna invasions.

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2. Administration and Society

• Monarchy supported by council of ministers.

• Land grants to Brahmanas and officials (agraharas).

• Varna system became rigid; women’s position declined.

• Growth of Puranic Hinduism (Vishnu, Shiva, Devi cults).

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3. Economy

• Prosperous agrarian base.

• Land grants recorded on copper plates.

• Tax system: bhaga (share of produce), bhoga (royal dues).

• Gupta coins (gold dinars) – finest numismatic art.

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4. Religion & Literature

• Hindu revival: Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti worship.

• Buddhism & Jainism continued with royal tolerance.

• Sanskrit literature:

  • Kalidasa – Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta.

  • Visakhadatta – Mudrarakshasa.

  • Sudraka – Mricchakatika.

  • Amarasimha’s Amarakosha – lexicon.

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5. Science & Technology

• Aryabhata – Astronomy (Aryabhatiya): rotation of earth, pi value.

• Varahamihira – Brihat Samhita (astronomy & astrology).

• Charaka & Sushruta – medicine & surgery.

• Decimal system and concept of zero developed.

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6. Art & Architecture

• Beginning of Hindu temple architecture:

  • Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh) – early Nagara style.

• Ajanta–Ellora caves – Gupta influence.

• Sculptures of Buddha and Hindu deities in exquisite detail.

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🟢 VI. Harsha and His Times (606–647 CE)

1. Political History

• Harshavardhana (606–647 CE) – son of Prabhakaravardhana (Pushyabhuti dynasty).

• Unified north India after fall of Guptas.

• Capital: Kannauj.

• Fought Pulakesin II (Chalukya) – defeated on Narmada.

• Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited his court (book: Si-Yu-Ki).

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2. Administration and Religion

• Followed Gupta administrative model.

• Revenue from agriculture; maintenance of welfare works.

• Initially a Shaiva, later patronized Mahayana Buddhism.

• Built Nalanda Monastery and Kannauj assemblies.

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3. Cultural Achievements

• Patron of literature:

  • Banabhatta – Harshacharita, Kadambari.

  • Mayura, Matanga, Subandhu flourished under him.

• Last great ruler before Islamic invasions.

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🟢 VII. Deccan Powers: Salankayanas & Vishnukundins (4th–6th c. CE)

• Salankayanas:

  • Ruled coastal Andhra (3rd–5th c. CE) after Ikshvakus.

  • Capital: Vengi.

  • Patrons of Vedic Brahmanism and Sanskrit.

• Vishnukundins:

  • Successors of Salankayanas.

  • Extended power to Telangana and Andhra.

  • Promoted Vaishnavism and temple architecture.

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✅ Summary Table: Unit II in a Nutshell